EGovernment: History, Causes and Trends

EGovernment History, Ca dos and TrendsBENCHMARKING EGOVERNMENT SERVICESAbstractGovernments around the world take a shit embraced the use of info and Communication Technologies (ICTs). This represents a relatively vernal branch of body of work within the IT field. EGovernment Services be provided through with(predicate) and through many a(prenominal) dissimilar means of overture and to a variance of audiences, citizens, demarcationes or even some other disposalal entities. later on clarifying the translations and inconsistencys among similar bournes (i.e. eGovernance and Digital Government, eDemocracy) this paper examines how eGovernment is measured by analyzing the dominating methodologies that ar used. Furthermore, interest specific champion the eGovernment benchmarking methodology that is used by the European Commission, a great focus in the evolution of eGovernment in Greece has been made. The finding through this assessment was far from satisfactory. Particular ly, canvass the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, from 2007 to 2009, no development in basis of bet terminationent, has taken come out. Finally, the measures that organisations need to undertake are discussed.IntroductionIn the retiring(a) years, attend toed by the invasion of Information Technology in every(prenominal)day lives, authoritiess all over the world aim begun widely using development technologies for increasing the effectiveness and quality of the function they provide. These initiatives have become kn experience as electronic government or eGovernment go. In approximately cases, when words gain that attractive e- in front of them, the popular tactile sensation is that they have become electronic, w scornver that means, even though in some cases it does non make much sense. This confusion is much more open-and-shut when the original word itself has conceptual and abstract kernels. Words like Government and Governance.Section I presents th e close to popular definitions, choosing the one that describe apiece term the best, and clarifies boundaries between the most vernacular terms. Furthermore, the different slipway that eGovernment can be classified, depending on the delivery aim modeling or the audience, is outlined.Although the definitions of eGovernment may vary widely, there an self-evident constituentd theme emerges eGovernment involves using tuition technology, and especially the Internet, to improve the delivery of government work to citizens, businesses, and other government agencies. It acts as enabler for citizens to interact and receive run from governments twenty four hours a day, seven days a week. Monitoring eGovernment development and evaluating its effectiveness is a complex and dispute task, as the phenomenon is unexampled and dynamic.In Section II, the basics of Benchmarking are presented and its structural elements are analyzed. Focusing on specific examples of methodology used, a set of four dominant practices that represent the spiritednesslong running efforts for measuring eGovernment is chosen to be explored further. Using the reports publish by each one of them, on a periodical basis, their inner workings are analyzed and the various developments, changes and evolutions in the methods employed by each one are mentioned.Section III focuses at benchmarking of eGovernment Services in Europe. In set up to recognize how eGovernment has evolved and matured within the European Union, the relevant European directives, initiatives and frameworks for the development of eGovernment Services in the region since 1999 are examined. Following that, the methodology used for benchmarking eGovernment the European Union is examined in detail. All measuring elements, including some that were used for the first season in the most recently published report are evaluated.Having launch what eGovernment is, what Benchmarking is and how its methodologies function, Section IV us es the data from the current European eGovernment Benchmarking Report, which was published in November 2009, to assess how the Greek eGovernment landscape evolved since the previous report in 2007. The results are disappointing. When comparing the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, there was no improvement, what so ever, from 2007 to 2009. Following that, Greek performance in the two new indices introduced in the latest report (EProcurement and User Experience) is reported and compared to the respective EU27+ average.Finally, in Section V, a general overview is provided along with the conclusions near the (lack of) progress in eGovernment in Greece. Scope and aimsThe orbit of this estimate is to analyze how the meaning of eGovernment has evolved in the past few years and then review the current trends in benchmarking the penetration sophistication of eGovernment services in Europe and the rest of the world. Furthermore, this project reports and analyses the take of eGovernment services offered in Greece. The basic aims of this project areDefine the eGovernment eco body, typology and taxonomy.Analyse the dominant methodologies of benchmarking eGovernment servicesGather and transit existing results roughly eGovernment in Greece, regarding service penetration and sophistication, along with other relevant metrics.ResourcesThis project relies heavily on look. In particular, a lot of research on what the different and some durations contradicting terms that define eGovernment as well as the rest of the relevant terms in academic papers throughout the previous decade was made. Following that, further research about the current and past trends in benchmarking in general and eGovernment benchmarking in particular are is conducted. From there on, having established what eGovernment is and what the provided services should be, along with how they are measured, more research was conducted in order to reveal what the veritable current level of provi ded eGovernment services is. To accomplish this, reports from many different parties are used. These include reports published both by well knows analyst firms or government bodies in various levels as well as reports issued at a global level much(prenominal) as the linked Nations to local reports issued by the authorities of each coun canvass much(prenominal) as the IT scout in Greece.Typology ConventionThroughout the bibliography, or any other sort of resource for that matter, electronic terms do not have a consonant representation. So, just like electronic mail can be found foreshorten in quite a few forms, electronic Government is abbreviated to eGovernment, e-Government, E-Government etc.To avoid this inconsistency, through this project the term eGovernment will be used (changed to EGovernment only in the beginning of sentences). This convention will apply to electronic terms that will be used such as eGovernance.I. EGovernment, eGovernance and Digital GovernanceEGovernme nt is one more of the recent years cambers. It is usually either polar with the word services at the end or other words like eGovernance and Digital Government. Like every other (relatively) new and cool buzzword they are used widely by a broad spectrum of individuals who represent mostly two different backgrounds. Information technology and politics. The first because it is a expert issue, the later because they have come to realize, even though a little late, that they represent an excellent vehicle for them to provide a better ensure to anyone who interacts with the Government. But, what do these terms mean? Do they collide or divergence each other? How about covering or including one another?A. EGovernment DefinitionsThere is not one, unique and publicly accepted definition for eGovernment. It is quite difficult to decide over a specific one exclusively by and by the research made, the adjacent definition from the World Bank () describes it bestGovernment refers to the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that have the power to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a variety of different ends better delivery of government services to citizens, improved inter work ons with business and industry, citizen empowerment through access to information, or more efficient government management. The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater convenience, revenue growth, and/or exist reductions ((AOEMA), 2004).Although other definitions have been provided, this definition is preferred. The moderateness is that it is the most concise and the easiest to be understood since apart describing in simple words how eGovernment is utilized, it goes on to offer a very brief, yet to the point, reference to its main advantages.EGovernment definitions various other sources as follows United Nations definition ((AOEMA), 2004) E-government is defined as utilizing the Internet and the world-wide-web for delivering government information and services to citizens.* Global Business Dialogue on Electronic Commerce GBDe definition ((AOEMA), 2004) Electronic government (hereafter e-Government) refers to a postal service in which administrative, legislative and judicial agencies (including both central and local governments) digitize their internal and external operations and utilize networked systems efficiently to realize better quality in the provision of common smear services.* Gartner Groups definition the continuous optimization of service delivery, constituency participation, and governance by transforming internal and external relationships through technology, the Internet and new media.* Definition of the Working Group on eGovernment in the Developing World E-government is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to promote more efficient and eff ective government, facilitate more accessible government services, allow greater public access to information, and make government more accountable to citizens. E-government might involve delivering services via the Internet, telephone, community centers (self-service or facilitated by others), wireless devices or other communications systems.EGovernment is in the first interprets of development. Most governments have already taken or are taking initiatives offering government services online. However, for the true potential difference of eGovernment to be realized, government needs to restructure and transform its long entrenched business do byes. EGovernment is not simply the process of moving existing government functions to an electronic platform. preferably, it calls for rethinking the way government functions are carried out today to improve some processes, to introduce new ones and to replace those that require it. The range of services that may be provided by e-governmen t spans from simple information sites to fully interactive experiences where users and government engage in a dialog mediated by information technology.Internal information systems of Government agencies, information kiosks, automated telephone information services, SMS services and other systems all comp try e-Government services. All these are applications of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) to improve the services of the Government towards its primary clients the citizens. In the last few years, there has been much talk of mobile government or m-government. MGovernment refers to the use of wireless technologies like cellular/mobile phones, laptops and PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) for offering and delivering government services. MGovernment is not a substitute for e-government, rather it complements it.1. Benefits of eGovernmentE-Government initiatives contribute to citizen empowerment by making information about government processes and decisions easily ava ilable, and allowing information-sharing among people and giving medications, and between citizens and the civil service (Accenture and the Markle Foundation, 2001). Well- sure citizens are better able to hold their governments accountable. Governments are then compelled to improve the quality of services, plump accessibility of these services, and increase responsiveness to their constituents. Many Government services rely on information passed among different offices within a department or across departments. The large amount of information and paperwork required results in an environment where for red tape rips, the workforce is inefficient and bureaucratic, and the delivery of services is ineffective. With the practise of ICT, the government bureaucracy and citizens are both winners in the battle against the paper trail. eGovernment allows government knowledge and data exchange to be accessed more easily (whether public or secure) by the appropriate offices or individuals. By this, it reduces redundancies of information flows, and resulting in overall increased productivity. Another result of the integration of operations of government agencies is the improvement of transparency in government.EGovernment minimizes redundant information flows, helps to negociate duplications of functions, and improves the adherence of public servants to proper government procedures, thereby reducing opportunities for corruption. This, provided it is accompanied by well-informed and active citizens, will assist in limiting the relationship between bureaucracy and corruption and will help lead to a higher sense of accountability among officials.B. EGovernment TaxonomyEGovernment can be classified according to different criteria. It can be classified according to its level, its audience and last but certainly not least, according to the delivery mechanics used.1. ReachEGovernment can be categorized in the following five distinct levels depending on how broad it is. The l evels are* International* National* Regional* verbalize/Provisional* LocalThese levels are expoundd downstairs ( go for 1 adapted from Heeks, 2006)2. AudienceThe question of where eGovernment originates is pretty much self-explanatory. Nevertheless, the resembling does not apply when wondering about who is in the receiving end. The answer that first comes to mind is, the citizens. But isnt so. Apart from citizens, there are other entities that are benefited by eGovernment services. According to Backus, the three main butt end groups that can be distinguished in eGovernment concepts are government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. The external strategic objectives focus on citizens and businesses and interest groups, the internal objectives focus on government itself (Backus, 2001).a) Government to Citizens (G2C)Government to Citizen activities are those in which the government provides, on-line, one-stop access to information and services to citizens. G2C applications a llow citizens to ask questions of government agencies and receive answers, such us* blame income taxes* Pay taxes* Arrange driving tests or renew drivers licenses* Pay traffic tickets* Make appointments for vehicle emission inspections and* Change their addressIn addition, a government could* Distribute information on the web* Provide downloadable forms online* Conduct training (e.g., in some US States, the classes for the drivers tests are offered online)* Assist citizens in finding example* Provide touristic and recreational information* Provide health advice about safety issues (e.g. warnings for epidemics like the recent H1N1 virus)* Allow transfer of benefits like food coupons* File ingrained disaster relief compensation electronically through the use of smart cards and the list goes on.b) Government to Business (G2B)Government to Business activities refers to those where the government deals with businesses such as suppliers using the Internet and other ICTs. It is a bidire ctional interaction and transaction Government to Business (G2B) and Business to Government (B2G). B2G is about businesses selling products and services to government. The most important G2B areas are eProcurement (which essentially is actually a reverse auction) and the auction of government surpluses.c) Government to Government (G2G)Lastly, Government to Government refers to those activities that take place between different government organizations/agencies/entities. Many of these activities aim to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of overall government operations. One such example is the Intelink, an intranet that carries classified information shared by different U.S. intelligence agencies.3. Delivery MechanismEGovernment services are provided not only via the Internet. Instead, many other means are ofttimes used. In fact, studies and reports indicate that these other means of eGovernment services provision show in some cases extremely high utilization. For example* Tele phony overleaps channel practice in some situations Accenture (2005) reports 63% of industrialized unsophisticated respondents contacting government by telephone compared to 31% using the Internet over a 12-month period.* In-person visits dominate in other situations an Australian survey reports half of government contacts to be face-to-face compared to one-fifth undertaken via the Internet (AGIMO 2005).* Survey data alike reflects an ongoing gustation for telephone or in-person channels especially for transactional, problem-solving, urgent and complex interactions (AGIMO 2005, Horrigan 2005). a) Multichannel ideals slightly Governments have embraced this naturalism and adopted a multichannel approach to the services they offer. In its Progress Reports, the European Comission includes some specific examples* In Malta, citizens can access their personal social security records and payments via the internet, and may as well as opt to be notified about their social security pay ments via SMS rather than receiving printed payment advice by post. However, the most innovative initiative is the introduction of eGovernment Agents that act as intermediaries to those without access. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Malta, 2009)* In Austria, all websites that belong to the .gv.at body politic are available free of charge or connection fees via wireless hotspots (WLAN), and via public kiosks, thanks to an excellent cooperation between the Austrian Government and two major(ip) telecommunication providers. Similar to Malta, Austria also has legislation in place allowing officials to act as intermediaries for citizens who do not have online access or a citizen (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Austria, 2009)* In Spain, 060 is the magic code providing a single access point. Many services provided by different administrations can be accessed via the 060 network, whether they are office-, internet-, or phone-based. Citizens can access the networks 2800 points of pres ence in the street or their office on the web, by the phone (060) or SMS. The 060 phone offspring is intended to replace over kB phone numbers available for citizens to access information of the General Administration of the State. The network is available 24/7 and currently offers 1225 national, regional and local public services. It is worth noting that In August 2007, only 15 months after its creation, the citizen information phoneline 060 had already dealt with 700000 enquiries. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Spain, 2009)C. EGovernance DefinitionsJust like eGovernment, there is not a single common definition to describe eGovernance. However, the UNESCO defines it best E-governance is the public sectors use of information and communication technologies with the aim of improving information and service delivery, encouraging citizen participation in the decision-making process and making government more accountable, transparent and effective. E-governance involves new styles of leadership, new ways of debating and deciding policy and investment, new ways of accessing education, new ways of listening to citizens and new ways of organizing and delivering information and services. E-governance is generally considered as a wider concept than e-government, since it can bring about a change in the way citizens relate to governments and to each other. E-governance can bring forth new concepts of citizenship, both in terms of citizen needs and responsibilities. Its objective is to engage, enable and empower the citizen.Other definitions include* EGovernance, meaning electronic governance is using information and communication technologies (ICTs) at various levels of the government and the public sector and beyond, for the purpose of enhancing governance. (Bedi et all, 2001, Holmes , 2001 and Okot-Uma, 2000).* Whereas according to Backus (2001), eGovernance is defined as the, application of electronic means in (1) the interaction between government and citizens and government and businesses, as well as (2) in internal government operations to simplify and improve democratic, government and business aspects of Governance.D. Digital GovernmentThe term Digital Governance was introduced more than 7 years ago (McIver Elmargarmid, 2002). Notions such as eGovernment, eGovernance and any afterlife technology of ICT (e.g. Web 2.0 applications), should fall under the Digital Governance umbrella (Schellong, 2009). This term has been preferred by other researchers as well, due to the excessive usage of adding letters like e (electronic), m (mobile), u (ubiquitous) or 2.0 to government-related terms. Schellong goes further to suggest a specific typology (2008) as illustrated below in 2EGovernment contains the terms* EAdministration Internal use of ICT* EServices. External use of ICT* EDemocracy. Use of ICT for direct public participation in government (decision making or voting)EGovernance is a completely different branch and deals with government , society and economy.E. Open GovernmentIn the last decade, there have been many efforts to promote eGovernment. A new initiative has emerged though, Open Government, or OpenGov as it is usually abbreviated. OpenGovernment efforts have begun not only in the US but also in other countries, like Greece. Although OpenGovernment and eGovernment have similar characteristics and share common goals, the greatest one being the promotion of transparency, they are not the same. Open Government can be argued to be an evolution of eGovernment (GUSTETIC, 2009), since the only reason that it exists as an initiative today is because of advances made by eGovernment along with various technological improvements and innovations.II. BenchmarkingA. DefinitionBenchmarking is defined as the process of measuring the performance of an organization along with the practices it applies in key areas and subsequently comparing them to other organizations. It is widely accepted in the private sector and is being used as a practical tool in order to achieve positive results with unlimited potential. EGovernment benchmarking means undertaking a review of comparative performance of eGovernment between nations or agencies. These studies have two purposes* Internal Benefit the individual and/or organization undertaking the benchmarking study* External Benefit achieved for users of the study.This project falls into the first category, as exposit in the Scope and Aims paragraph earlier in the document.B. GoalsWith new expectations about their performance, government entities are being encouraged to look at ways of implementing changes in their practices. Benchmarking provides them with one of their most useful options. In every industry, there are ways of doing things that are broadly recognized as standard practices for that industry. However, every industry has its leaders. These leaders are organizations that over perform when measured against those standards. They have achieved best practice s as demonstrated by their results in quality, cost, customer satisfaction and responsiveness.Benchmarking aims to founder what the best practices are that lead to superior performance. In greater detail, the process of benchmarking e-Government * Fosters accountability for eGovernment projects.* Helps meeting rising public expectations* Enables government officials to take more informed decisions and corrective actions* Validates the generated public value* Fosters projects interchangeMoreover, benchmarking can be distinguished from other traditional forms of evaluation by its attempt to visualize best practices through normalizing comparison and by urging public entities to ask themselves what they can do to promote them. Benchmarking enables and motivates them to determine how well current practices compare to others practices, locate performance gaps, experience best practices in action, and prioritize areas for improvement or other opportunities. It is quite important to note that Benchmarking is not the same as benchmarks. Benchmarks are performance measures and benchmarking is the action of conducting the evaluation. (Yasin, 2002).C. Data SourcesAfter establishing what benchmarking is, the most common data sources are evaluated..1. Calculated IndicatorsQuite a few benchmarking reports use composite indicators, for example, for the purposes of national rankings. Because it is not forever and a day clear how they are calculated or researched, composites have been criticized (UIS 2003) for their lack of transparency along for their subjectivity. Fortunately, a guide for good practice in use of composites has been essential (eGEP 2006a45) and includes* Developing a theoretical framework for the composite.* Identifying and developing relevant variables.* Standardizing variables to allow comparisons.* Weighting variables and groups of variables.* Conducting sensitivity tests on the robustness of aggregated variables.Other than the composite count of natio nal rankings, there seems to be little use of calculated indicators in the benchmarking of e-government. The most commonly used indicators include* Benefit/ terms Ratio.* Demand/ lend couplet.* Comparative Service Development.* National beSome examples along with the methods used for each indicator are illustrated in Table 1below (adapted from Heeks, 2006).Calculated IndicatorExampleMethodBenefit/Cost RatioExpected financial benefit (impact) / Financial cost (input) (NOIE 2003)Interview (internal self-assessment / internal administrative records)Demand/Supply MatchPreference for online channel in particular services versus Online sophistication of that service (Graafland Essers Ettendgui 2003)Mass citizen surveyComparative Service DevelopmentStage model level of citizen services versus business services (Capgemini 2005)Stage model level of different service cluster areas (Capgemini 2005) three party Web assessmentNational RankingComposite of features and stage model level for na tional websites (West 2005)Composite of ICT and human infrastructure with stage model level for national/other websites (UN 2005)Composite of stage model level, integration and personalization of national websites (Accenture 2005)Third party Web assessmentTable 1 Calculated Indicators Used in eGovernment Benchmarking (Heeks, 2006).2. Standard Public field IndicatorsApart from calculated indicators, others (Flynn 2002) suggest using a standard indicator set for public sector performance. This set is displayed in Table 2 below (adapted from Flynn 2002).IndicatorExplanationeGovernment ExampleBenchmarkEconomyThe amount of inputs usedExpenditure per capita on ITNoneInternal efficiencyThe ration of input intermediatesCost per website resurrectd per yearMinimizationExternal efficiencyThe ratio of inputs outputs (use)Cost per citizen user of government websites per yearMinimizationInternal effectivenessThe fit between actual outputs (use) and organizational objectives or other set targets The extent to which underserved communities are users of e-government servicesMaximizationExternal effectivenessThe fit between actual impacts and organizational objectives or other set targetsThe extent to which citizens are gaining employment due to use of an eGovernment job search serviceMaximizationQualityThe quality of intermediates or, more typically outputs (use)The quality of eGovernent services as perceived by citizen usersMaximizationEquityThe equitability of distribution of outputs and impactsThe quality of time/money saved by eGovernment service use between rich and poorMaximizationTable 2 Standard Indicators for eGovernment Performance (Flynn 2002) D. MethodologiesHaving described the methodologies used more commonly when benchmarking eGovernment services, the next step is to illustrate how the necessary data is gathered. There are a number of official methods (eGEP 2006b)* Focus groups* Internal administrative records* Internal self-assessment* Mass user surveys* Offic ial statistics* Pop-up surveys* Third part web assessment* Web metrics and crawlersEach of these methods can be compared in four different and distinct factors (Heeks, 2006). Those are* Cost The time and financial cost of the method.* Value The value of the method in producing data capable of assessing the downstream value of e-government.* Comparability The ease with which data produced can be compared across nations or agencies.* Data Quality The level of quality of the methods data. In particular, Heeks suggests using the CARTA (Complete, Accurate, Relevant, Timely, Appropriate) check list when assessing data quality (2006).There is also a set of methodologies that are not used as frequently as the ones mentioned earlier. These are* Intermediary Surveys.* Intranet Assessment.* Public Domain Statistics.* Public Servant and Politician Surveys.1. mechanisationWith new eGovernment services being introduced by Governments every day, benchmarking is gradually becoming a more and more i mportant mechanism for identifying best practices and keeping wind of developments, but as the number of the offered services increase, data collection becomes more and more difficult. Apart from that, since eGovernment is being expanded to other eGovernment levels, as illustrated earlier in 1, it is only natural that the number of benchmarking studies is increasing fast. Thus, the traditional approach of fata collection has not only become a very challenging but also a very resource intensive task. In order to address this matter, there are projects (eGovMon) which attempt to automate the data collection (Research Council of Norway, 2009). In particular, the eGovMon project is co-funded by the Research Council of Norway and is developing methodology and software for quality evaluation of web services, in particular eGovernment services, concerning four areas Accessibility Transparency Efficiency affectAdditionally eGovMon will provide a policy design toolCase study SIGMUND FREUDC ase study SIGMUND FREUDSigmund Freud(1856-1939),Austrian physician, neurologist, and founder of psychoanalysis, who created an entirely new approach to the reasonableness of human personality. Through his skill as a scientist, physician, and source, Freud combined ideas prevalent at the time with his own observation and study to produce a major supposition of psychology. Most importantly, he applied these ideas to medical practice in the preaching of mental illness. His newly created psychotherapy treatments and procedures, many of which in modified form are applied today, were based on his understanding of unconscious(p) thought processes and their relationship to neurotic symptoms (see Neurosis). Regarded with skepticism at the time, Freuds ideas have cover and waned in acceptance ever since. Nevertheless, he is regarded as one of the greatest creative minds of the 20th century.I. Freuds lifeFreudwasbornintoa middle-class Jewish family in Freiberg, Moravia (now Pbor, Czech Republic), on May 6, 1856. When he was three years old his family, fleeing from the anti-Semitic riots then raging in Freiberg, moved to the German urban center of Leipzig. Shortly thereafter, the family settled in Vienna, where Freud remained for most of his life.AlthoughFreudsambition from childhood had been a career in law, he became intrigued by the rapidly developing sciences of the day after reading the work of British scientist Charles Darwin. Freud decided to become a medical student shortly before he entered Vienna University in 1873. Inspired by the scientific investigations of the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Freud was driven by an intense desire to study natural science and to solve some of the challenging problems confronting contemporary scientists.Inhisthirdyearatthe university Freud began research work on the central flyaway system in the physiological laboratory under the direction of German physician Ernst Wilhelm von Brcke. Neurological research was so engrossing that Freud neglected the prescribed courses and as a result remained in medical school three years longer than was normally required to qualify as a physician. In 1881, after completing a year of compulsory military service, he sure his medical degree. Unwilling to give up his experimental work, however, he remained at the university, working in the physiological laboratory. At Brckes urging, he reluctantly given up theoretical research to gain practical experience.Freudthenspentthree years at the General Hospital of Vienna, devoting himself successively to psychiatry, dermatology, and nervous diseases. In 1885, following his appointment as a lecturer in neuropathology at Vienna University, he left his post at the hospital. Later that year he worked in Paris with French neurologist Jean Charcot.OnhisreturntoVienna in 1886 Freud began private practice in neurology. Also that year Freud married Martha Bernays, to whom he had become engaged four years earlier. The firs t of their children was born the following year. Their family would become complete with the birth of Anna in 1895, who herself would become an important psychoanalyst (see Anna Freud).In1902Freudwasappointed professor of neuropathology at the University of Vienna, a post he held until 1938. In 1923 he developed cancer of the jaw. Although repeated operations and prosthetic appliances in his brim made his life most uncomfortable, he continued working incessantly until his death. When the Germans occupied Austria in 1938, Freud was persuaded by friends to escape with his family to England. He died in London on September 23, 1939.II. Freuds workFreudwasbytraining a research scientist and a physician. His decision to devote himself to the neglected and poorly understood area of excited disorders has to do with currents of the time as well as his own interests. Chief among these was the prevailing attitude toward scientific endeavor at the time. Scientists were looking for causes and for connections between previously uncorrelated phenomena. Although Jewish by birth and cultural tradition, Freud saw all religion as illusory and was non-practicing. Instead, he can be seen as a determinist, covering the world and human experience as understandable in terms of cause and effect.A. Hypnosis and the influence of CharcotIn1885Freudwasawarded a government grant enabling him to slip away 19 weeks in Paris as a student of French neurologist Jean Charcot. Charcot, who was the director of the clinic at the mental hospital, the Salptrire, was then treating nervous disorders by the use of hypnotic suggestion. Fascinated by the apparent success of these treatments, Freud met and studied with several of the leading figures in the field.Charcotsgrouphadbeen tackling the problem of hysteria, a term derived from the Greek word for womb. Hysteria traditionally was seen as a condition of women and was characterized by unexplained fainting, paralysis, loss of sensation, tics, and tremors. In time, Charcot came to see that men could also be so troubled. Although the mechanism of hysteria was not understood, Charcot and his contemporaries showed that its symptoms could be cured by hypnosis. Freuds studies under Charcot influenced him greatly in channeling his interests to psychopathology (the study and treatment of disorders of the mind).InhispracticeinVienna, Freud met many patients with nervous disorders for which there was no apparent physiologic cause. Their symptoms included paralyzed limbs, tics, tremors, loss of consciousness, memory impairment, and numbness that could not be explained. These unexplained cases were labeled as neurotic, meaning that they were similar to neurological conditions. In time they became known collectively as neuroses.Freudsobservationof Charcots use of hypnosis in the treatment of similar disorders led him to conclude that there could be powerful mental processes operating that remain hidden from conscious understanding. He b egan to employ hypnosis in his own practice, publishing articles on the subject in 1892. Freud came to understand hysterical neurotic symptoms as the product of a conflict between opposing mental forces. cognizant forces representing will were balanced by unconscious opposing forces representing counterwill. He understood hypnosis to act on the side of will to subjugate the counterwill, thus obliterating the symptom. The idea of conflict proposed in the 1892 paper A Case of Successful Treatment by Hypnotism With Some Remarks on the Origin of Hysterical Symptoms Through Counterwill was to become a fundamental principle of psychoanalysis.B. The beginnings of psychoanalystsThenextimportantdevelopment in Freuds theory of psychology came out of work he conducted with his friend and colleague Josef Breuer, a Viennese physician who was involved in the treatment of a boylike woman who was distressed while caring for her dying father. The patient had developed a number of hysterical sympto ms, which Breuer initially treated by hypnotic suggestion. Initial success gave way to disappointment when on her fathers death her symptoms returned with increased severity. Somewhat at a loss as to how to proceed, Breuer had continued to talk to his patient on a daily basis and in time she began to talk about various reminiscences from the past and about her daydreams. Remarkably, as her narrative revisited memories from the past, which were associated with the onset of a particular symptom, each symptom disappeared when accompanied by an emotional outburst. Breuer made use of this discovery to eliminate her symptoms one at a time. He called the treatment the cathartic technique (from the Greek katharsis meaning purgation). The treatment was time consuming and required hefty effort to reach dimly recalled and otherwise inaccessible memories.FreudandBreuerpublished the case and several others in 1895 under the title Studies on Hysteria. Their view was summed up in the statement Hy sterics suffer mainly from reminiscences. They proposed that when faced with emotionally traumatic memories, hysterics subjugate them from conscious appreciation to prevent the unbearable emotional pain and suffering that they cause. Rather than being driven out of the mind, however, these memories are driven into an area of the mind that is unconscious and inaccessible. Here the memories may be redirected from the emotional system into the somatic (bodily) system and appear as apparently unexplained physical symptoms. The cases that constitute Studies on Hysteria outline the transition from treatment by hypnotic suggestion to the earlier descriptions of what is now known as psychoanalysis.WorkingonhisownFreud hypothesized that hysterical symptoms were most likely to arise when repressed traumatic memories related to adverse childhood sexual experiences. This view generated tremendous controversy at the time because the existence of childhood sexuality was not widely accepted. In ti me Freud was forced to reconsider this aspect of his theory, instead relating the repressed memories to childhood fantasies of sexuality and their relationship to parental figures.1. DreamsThenextdevelopmentin Freuds theory stemmed from his observations on dreaming. He came to see that many of the characteristics of dreams were shared with the symptomatic memories recalled by his patients in the narrative of free knowledge. In his therapeutic relationship with his patients, Freud had abandoned hypnotic suggestion in party favour of encouraging the person to speak freely about whatever came into his or her mind. Unintentionally, the patient would bring order to these free associations, whose structure and content Freud used to try to understand underlying unconscious processes.IndreamsFreudnotedthe same apparently unstructured experiences of thoughts and images coming into the mind that seemed to be representative of some underlying unconscious process. To explain these phenomena, he suggested the existence of an inner censor that effected a compromise between conflicting mental forces and in the process disguised their meaning from conscious appreciation. He defined resistance as the unconscious defense against awareness of repressed experiences in order to avoid the resulting anxiety. He traced the operation of unconscious processes, using the free associations of the patient to guide him in the interpretation of dreams and slips of speech. Slips of speech or parapraxes, now known as Freudian slips, Freud claimed, were revelations of unconscious wishes. His 1904 publication, The Psychopathology of daily Life, discusses these ideas.Freudcametounderstand the mind as a series of layers, with the most superficial layers in conscious appreciation and the deeper layers containing repressed memories and remaining unavailable to conscious thought. He termed this the topographical model and likened it to an iceberg, a small part of which is visible above the surfac e while the greater submerged part remains obscured from view. These ideas were published in 1900 in The Interpretation of Dreams.Duringthefirsttwodecades of the 1900s Freud concentrated on modifying and improving his theory of psychoanalysis. He defined a number of principles and described a model of personality development.2. The unconsciousPerhapsFreudsgreatest contribution was to describe the unconscious and to postulate that it obeys the principle of psychic determinism, which holds that human thoughts, feelings, and impulses, rather than being random, are joined in a system of causally related phenomena, behind which lies some reason or meaning. Freud concluded that on this basis unconscious processes could be investigated and understood. Some experiences that are not immediately accessible to conscious appreciation can be brought into the conscious mind by the process of remembering. Freud referred to these experiences as the preconscious. Still-deeper thoughts cannot be rem embered and are actively repressed in the unconscious.Unconsciousexperiences, according to Freud, are not subject to the same logic characteristic of conscious experience. Unconscious ideas, images, thoughts, and feelings can be condensed or dramatized in the form of abstract concepts and imagery. Often the relationship between the original experience and the unconscious symbolic representation can seem obscure.3. office of conflictThecentralthemeofconflict had arisen early in Freuds work. Conflict arises in a persons conscious mind when one set of beliefs impacts adversely on another area of belief, causing emotional suffering felt as disappointment, anger, or frustration. Freud was interested in the unconscious aspect of mental conflict. He described the frolic principle as another fundamental of psychoanalytic theory. This holds that human beings have a tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain. The principle is give tongue to to dominate in early life, bringing the developing individual into conflict with the external world. These conflicts are retained in the unconscious.Freudsoriginalconcept held that the conflicts of early life arose as a result of innate human drives or instincts. He conceptualized how development might occur in terms of the drives and their satisfaction according to the pleasure principle. Among the chief drives was the libidinal, or sexual, drive, which serves the human species by directing individuals to reproduce. Awareness of a need to keep rein on the free expression of drives gradually develops, and harm to rein in these drives (and fantasies about their expression) is felt as guilt. Life becomes an equilibrium between drives, conflicts, and reality.Freudbelievedthatby understanding the crucial events and fantasy wishes of childhood, psychoanalysis could shed understanding on later adult character development with its attendant conflicts and neurotic symptoms. Later, he extended his model to include psychoses (serious mental disorders in which people have a distorted view of reality).Conflictsrepressedinto the unconscious are retained, according to Freud. From time to time they may overcome repression and reemerge into conscious appreciation, precipitating anxiety or panic. To counteract this, the individual unconsciously produces various defense mechanisms, which become part of that persons character. Examples of defense mechanisms include projection, where the individual ascribes to others his or her own unconscious desires (I hate you, for example, becomes You hate me), and reaction formation, where the individual adopts a pattern of behavior directly opposed to a strong unconscious drive.In 1923 Freud reformulated his ideas in a structural model of the mind that postulated the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego.Freudgavethenameid to unconscious drives. The id knows nothing of morality or reality. It seeks only to gratify the instinctual drives, and it operates solely according to the ple asure principle. Freud held that the biological drives of a young person are often frustrated by delays and restricted by the demands of parents and other older members of the family. As time passes, the demands of the community or society also become important obstacles to id gratification. In adapting to the environment, the child begins to acquire an ego, or set of conscious perceptions, memories, and thoughts that enable the person to deal effectively with reality. Thus, according to Freud, the ego obeys the reality principle. As the individual absorbs the teachings of family and society, he develops a superego, or conscience, that frequently conflicts with the drives of the id. In many cases the ego reduces the conflict by at least partially fulfilling the id impulses through socially acceptable behavior. Often, however, the conflict disappears on the conscious level as unfulfilled impulses are repressed into the unconscious mind.Freudstherapyconsisted of listening to the patie nt relate a narrative of free associations over many sessions. By listening to the patients associations, Freudian slips, contents of dreams, and thoughts, he linked and interpreted these experiences to the patients conscious world. He came to understand the nature of transference, in which the patient develops feelings for the therapist that are in fact representative of previous feelings toward other important figures in the patients life. These thoughts and feelings Freud interpreted and linked to the patients current emotional state.C. Major influencesFreudsearlypsychological work shows the influence of the sciences of the day on his thinking. Ideas from physics, chemistry, and evolutionary theory occur regularly in his writing. At the time,Charles Darwins writings, especially the theory of evolution, were challenging contemporary Judeo-Christian belief. Indeed it was Darwin who emphasized instincts for survival and reproduction, formulated in Freuds theory as basic drives.Freu dsideascanbeseen in the same context as Darwins. Freud, too, challenged philosophical and religious thinking by suggesting that human beings were rather less in control of their own thoughts and actions than previously believed. His contention that unconscious thoughts and actions had to arise from within the self rather than from God conflicted with the contemporary notion of soul. From Freuds time on, the disciplines of philosophy and psychology developed separately.Freudwasparticularly interested in the association school of psychology, which included Johann Friedrich Herbart and Wilhelm Max Wundt, the former of whom may have contributed to free association as a therapeutic technique. Psychodynamic theory-the model of conflicting forces influencing the subconscious-also has its origins in the physical concepts of opposing forces and vector analysis. Freuds theory that unresolved conflicts can be converted into physical symptoms reflects the principle of conservation of energy hel d by the first law of thermodynamics. justFreudsideaswere new and radical, and it is easy to see why Freud came into conflict so readily with the society and establishment of his time. He relied on the support of friends such as Breuer. By 1906, however, a small number of pupils and followers had gathered around Freud, including Austrians William Stekel, Alfred Adler, and Otto Rank American Abraham Brill and Eugen Bleuler and Carl Jung from Switzerland. Other notable associates, who joined the circle in 1908, were Magyar Sndor Ferenczi and Briton Ernest Jones.Pakistan Deep inside the Worlds Most stir StatePakistan Deep inside the Worlds Most Frightening StateBOOK REVIEWPAKISTAN DEEP INSIDE THE WORLDS MOST FRIGHTENING STATEAuthor Mary Anne WeaverMary Anne Weaver, the writer of Pakistan Deep inside the Worlds Most Frightening State has been a long time foreign correspondent for the New Yorker magazine. She is an expert in South Asian and Middle Eastern affairs and political and mili tant Islam. She has also written on the rise of militant Islam. She has reported from over cardinal countries of the world, and currently resides in New York. She has won many writing awards including Citation, the Cornelious Ryan Award for the best non-fiction book on international affairs. Moreover, she has worked for The Sunday Times of London, London Times, capital letter Post, and some other groups. She is Bachelor of Arts in Political Science and Journalism from Pennsylvania State University and Master of Arts in Arab Affairs from the American University in Cairo. The other important book that she has written is A Portrait of Egypt A Journey Through the world of Militant Islam. She has written article on the consequences of Saudi and American funding and Egyptian support of Islamic militants fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan. She has also written Indias Bandit Queen.The authors political and philosophical viewpoint is based on years of experience as a journalist and person al vignettes overseas. She is quite critical on the rise of Militant Islam and the dire need of Pakistan to the United States.General SummaryThe book is basically about a country which is surrounded by such challenging and complex circumstances that we can find no parallel of. The country is one and only Pakistan. The author has given a classical account of the situation the country has passed through. A nuclear armed state sandwiched between Afghanistan and India, having militant influence inside has been elaborated by her as the most dangerous place on Earth. The countrys integration is an utmost requirement for the world peace. The book gives an account of the most important factors, i.e. Militancy, Nuclear Arsenal, Neighbors, Role in the state of war on Terror and the shifting policies in different Dictatorial tenures. Moreover, the role of United States and Saudi Arabia has been discussed and the Baloch Tribal Culture and Kashmir, that has been the main bone of contention betw een Pakistan and India has been utmost importance in the book.Authors Thesis or ConclusionThe author during the journey of writing this book met many important figures of the time, such as General Pervez Musharraf, the then President and Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army, Benazir Bhutto, G.M.Syed, Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti, and some more. The author has given an account of the circumstances in which General Musharraf took over. There was an overall policy shift after he came into the chair, as his takeover was followed by the 9/11. According to her, there was a Brobdingnagian difference in Zia and Musharraf policies. She elaborates the role of Saudi Arabia and Inter-Services Intelligence of Pakistan in Afghanistan and explains how both contradict their interference. The event of 9/11 led Pakistan into circumstances that it had to become an ally of the United States in the War on Terror. The point of concern for her was that if they counter the Taliban, how they will manage the Jiha dis then. Initially, Pakistan benefitted from the United States, as sanctions were removed and aid packages were received. She also highlights the role of nationalists like G.M.Syed. She tells that Osama bin Laden had popular support in Pakistan. People were ready to come out on streets for him. He received help from many tribal elders of Balochistan. The tribal elders of Balochistan were against the education and development in their province, as they see reduction in their influence. Further, she talks about the role of Mullahs in the society and most importantly the politics of Pakistan. Arabs are very close to Pakistan. They mostly come there for hunting purposes with the approval of the authorities. Then she talks about Benazir. She tells that at that time Benazir Bhutto seemed a serious threat to Musharraf, as intelligence agencies at that time had the view that she was the most popular leader of the country. She gives an account of Zulfiqar Ali Bhuttos death and Benazir and f amilys condition at that time. She gives a comparison of Musharrafs liberal and Zia-ul-Haqs conservative tenures. She also talks about the role of military in politics. The fight between India and Pakistan has also been discussed. India blames Pakistan for any incident happening inside its territory and so does Pakistan. India claims that organizations such as Lashkar-e-Taiba, etc. are being operated from Pakistan. The objective of United States was to carry out attacks and limit the members of Al-Qaeda, whereas she gives some indication of Pakistani reluctance also. Regarding Kashmir, the major bone of contention between Pakistan and India, she tells the views of both sides. Pakistan forces for a plebiscite as decided by the United Nations, whereas India has a stance that it is a bilateral issue after the Simla Agreement. There is a major deadlock between both the nations, and no(prenominal) of them can afford to lose Kashmir. For this reason, both sides remain on maximum militar y alert. She highlights a very important aspect that the organizations which were once formed and prepare by the intelligence agencies of Pakistan, like Jaish-e-Muhammad, twice tried to assassinate General Musharraf. This is a point of high concern. Pakistan is hence elaborated as one of the most difficult and tough countries of the world.My Reaction to Authors ViewsI agree with the authors views in most of the aspects she has given. She is absolutely correct about the difference in the approaches, i.e. liberal and fundamentalist of Musharraf and Zia ul Haq. She correctly tells about the support and sympathies Osama bin Laden had in the country. The Baloch tribal elders themselves do not want economic and educational empowerment in their province, in order to keep in order their influence. The aspect of Arabs which she has discussed is in my point of view correct and having a line in order with Arabs is a basic compulsion on Pakistan, for financial, economic and political reasons. The role of military in politics is a truth, and still politics is not free of their influence. Moreover, the most important aspect in my point of view is that of the organizations that were formed under the influence of our security agencies and now they are our own enemies. This has been clear witnessed by the whole world. So, her view of Pakistan, one of the most difficult states in the world is correct, as the complexity of problems that can be witnessed here, are not that common in the world.Summary and General RecommendationsThe book is well written, and covers many of the problems and, complexities of the problems, that Pakistan is facing today. The author has herself met many bigwigs and then mentioned the experiences on the basis of those meetings and travels that she had in the country. The book includes index, map, but lacks pictures.As far as referring the book is concerned, yes, I will refer the book to others, for the reason that it contains a whole analysis along wit h the background of the problems that the country is surrounded by today. This book is a good read for the general reader.