Iconic Images of the 1980s

iconic Images of the 1980sImages of 1980sSpeaking of 1980s often wad come back to the highest degree Reagan, Greed is good, and funny hair styles. Of course the 80s were to a greater extent than that, but if you asked me what I am thinking about the 1980s it would be a longest Mhm followed by I was not even born(p) yet. However, images can be a tool for us to hit the books the distributor point of hi figment. The grea judge thing about learning history for a ocular person is to look into photos. Each and every photograph has a story to tell. Ever since the technology of modern camera was introduce in the 18 century, concourse have been using this technique to capture memorable moments. photography in the 1980s was personal and policy-making, or a mixture of both. Nevertheless, thank to the lensmans who atomic number 18 there to capture aftermaths, the future extension can study them. What happened at the scene of Reagans act Assassination? How big was the crowed when the Berlin hem in fell down at 1989? What did Chernobyl look equal after the outburst? I believe those results had already been typeized. Some say history everlastingly repeats itself. That is somehow true if we look deeper into every decades. The innovation subdued has the said(prenominal) problems that happened forward. What is so special about the 1980s is that is a historical go point. Through several iconic photos of the 1980s the decade can be seen as one(a) plagued with wars, tragic events and govern psychological unrest, but it was confusablely a decade where pardondom and adult male rights were advanced.Afghan Girl, 1985 ( play guess 1)The Soviet onslaught of Afghanistan during 1977-1980 might been seen as a milestone of U.S. history due to the suspensor we have been giving, but due to poor Sharbat gluttony and her family it is not an event to be celebrated. In 1985, subject field Geographic photographer Steve McCurry shot a portrait of a 12 year-old Afgh an girl named Sharbat overeating do it to the cover of National Geographic Magazine. However, what volume could not see in the photo Afghan Girl was the reason that caused Sharbat Gulas gloominess eyes. From 1979 to 1989, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan armed with Arab resistance launched a war of invasion and counter-aggression. The evening of December 27, the Soviet Federal deployed eight divisions, Special Forces, and mobile military in a brutal military invasion of Afghanistan. In only three and a half hours, they gained complete military and political control of Kabul and heavy(a) portions of the country (Office of Historian)Until early 1980, 8.5 million troops invaded which gradually increased to 10 million people. There were al near 10 years long of ongoing civil wars, invasions and conflicts in Afghanistan. Unfortunately, little Sharbat Gula was born into this event. After the Soviet invasion of blatant military, the Afghan people in the nation in danger of life a nd death, the original anti-government ultra activity soon developed into a larger anti-Soviet war against the Soviet Union. According to the article A Life Revealed Along Afghanistans war-torn barrier by Debra Denker, Sharbat Gulas village was bombed and invaded by Soviet Union around the early 80s. Unfortunately, Sharbat Gulas parents were killed by bombing, about light speed people died from war, 600 million people were forced to flee their homes and buzz off refugees. latterlyr, photographer Steve McCurry visited Afghanistan, and was given a war-torn frontier. tour. In one of the refugee camps, he captured the track down face of Sharbat Gula among other similar age girls. Sharbat Gulas portrait became the symbol of post war fear of the Muslim world (Denker). In 1988, to a lower place the auspices of the UN Secretary General Javier Perez de Cuellar, the Soviet Union, the fall in States, Afghanistan and Pakistan met in in Kabul and their four foreign ministers signed in G eneva a political settlement for Afghanistan. The Soviet troops had to kip down from Afghanistan inside nine months, putting an end of a nine-year occupation (Dibb). Wars and conflicts are a never ending nightmare which is still haunting us today. The look on Sharbat Gulas face fully uttered that.The Reagan Assassination Attempt, 1981 (See figure 2)Same time at the early 80s, the most serious incident which happened to President Ronald Wilson Reagan was when he got shot but removed the Washington Hilton Hotel by a young man named John Hinckley younger In the photo of the scene right after the shooting, reporters were making roars within the crowed, few officers holding a gun down on the sidewalk, and the chairman was thrown into the limo cable car. It was chaotic. The gunman was held immediately after the shooting. This event ball over the entire society for Reagan had only been elected to be a prexy for ten weeks. President Reagan was heading to the white house unaware that he had been shot. Shortly after he left the scene, he did not cod one of the ricochets punctured his lung until he started coughing up blood. He hence was rushed to George Washington University Hospital. The New York Times reported President Reagan remained in good humor even he was fainted due to the blood loss. He told his doctors, Please tell me youre Republicans (Raines). Fortunately, President Reagan survived after the operation, and recovered after weeks.The motive to assassinate the President surp acclivitously had nothing to do with political reasons, but with John Hinckleys obsession with actress Jodie Foster. This obsession was based on the movie Taxi Driver. He firmly believed that if he became famous by mimicking the plot from Taxi Driver, would be able to get Jodie Fosters attention. What happened to gunman John Hinckley afterward was 13 charged against him. However, due to his mental problem, the court sent him to St. Elizabeths Hospital for life instead of prison. T he unsuccessful attempted assassination brought dramatic changes to Reagans presidency. His survival boosted a wave of public philanthropy and he gained popularity. He was also the commencement president who survived the assassination (Brands). Although governance was not the reason why John Hinckley open(a) fire, it is still one of the many major political events in the 1980s.Chernobyl Accident 1986 (See Figure 3) in any case wars and political unrest, there was a major unclear virgule happened at Chernobyl, Ukraine. The photo that interpreted by authorities right after the accident shows the explosion had destroyed the entire building to a hollow plenty on the ground. What happened was that event management and technical staff decided to test the turbine in case of a sudden loss of reason, the strain of the reactor. This overnight test was neither carefully platformned nor authorized by superiors. On the afternoon of April 25, 1986, the unit fourth in accordance with the plan was exclude down, when the operation began an experiment re after-hoursd to the security system. The case of this experiment is to bring in the plant loses all exponent, but the rotating turbine has enough energy capable of proviso electric power for 45 seconds, which is the time infallible to start the touch diesel generator supply. The reactor power is reduced to half of the rated output, and the need reactor core cooling system is turned off.After 1110, the staffs did not re-open the emergency cooling system, which was the first major mistake, according to a series of serious negligence operations are the output power was reduced to one percent of rated output, much lower than the power required for the experiment the majority of the control rods withdrawn and the other important gum elastic system was turned off. These operational mistakes made the unit fourth become unstable. Output had been rising rapidly, technical workers lost control of the reactor, output powe r rose to up to 100 times the rated output, and thus part of the go off rods ruptures, and the heat burst a lot of things to make the cooling weewee evaporation, resulting in a steam explosion destroying a weight of about 1,000 tonnes of reactor cover. From May 1 to 6, due to the reactor explosion, more than 26 percent of the radiation dose was released into the removed world, 31 firefighters and two people from the plant lost their lives, most of them have been severely burned from radiation, plot 209 suffered severe radiation injuries (U.S.NRC).Strictly speaking, the Chernobyl accident cannot be called a human error. It was more like a willful violation. It seemed following the scheduled timetable was seen as more important than safety. Staff were prohibited from running the operation under low power, and stopped safety device testing. It was like in run a little faster by car, removing the brakes in the car regardless of rules or safety, and just desperately rushing forward to the destination, wind to a monstrous disaster. 25 years later today, the area outside of Chernobyl nuclear plant still reminds uninhabitable. Peoples belongings still stay in the said(prenominal) spots, but not a retrace of life in sight.The fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989 (See figure 4)Finally, the voice of freedom is rising at the end of 1980s. After nearly three decades of separation, the Berlin Wall eventually fell down on the evening of November 9, 1989. A photo taken by Associated Press captured the moment when demonstrators tore down a constituent of the Berlin wall. Berlin Wall and the wall that speared North and South Korea right now is the same product after World War II. After World War II, Germany and Berlin by the Soviet Union, the United States, Britain and France divided Germany into four zones. In 1949, the Soviet Union set-aside(p) easternmost Germany, the capital set in atomic number 99 Berlin. West Germany and the US and British law were established in th e occupied territories. Initially people in Berlin were able to move around freely between the districts, but with the Cold War, tensions started building up. In order to counter East Germans from fleeing to West Germany. The border began to close up. From 1949 to 1961, about 2.5 million East Germans who risked being shot by East Germany fled to West Berlin. Berlin Wall started just barbed wires in August 13, 1961. It was later replaced by a large number of real fences more than 155 kilometers long, about 3 to 4 meters high (Behind The Wall). After the construction was completed, a total of more than 5000 people successfully fled to West Berlin, 3000 people were arrested, and over 400 people were killed and hurt (Leslie).25 years ago, the new East German government began to plan to relax travel restrictions for East German people, but due to a misunderstanding of the then East German Politburo on superior orders, erroneously announced Berlin Wall is about to open, resulting in te ns of thousands of people took to the streets, the demolition of the wall, the safe and sound of Germany into a state of extreme excitement. One of the Time reporter spate Olsen recalled the day when he was in Germany says They were screaming, Tor auf Tor auf Open the gate (Rothman) Although it was not the mental synthesis of walls collapsed, it had been removed by people. People climbed the Berlin Wall, removed graffiti, and took pieces of building materials as souvenirs. 11 months later, the two Germanies finally reunited.Tank Man, 1989 (See figure 5)Just several months before the Fall of Berlin Wall, in Tiananmen firm Beijing, China, a Tank man stood in front of type 59 tanks and attempted to block their focus. He was pulled out by another man lright after. This thrilling scene happened to be caught by Jeff Widener (The Associated Press) in June 5, 1989 who was inside the Plaza Hotel next to the Tiananmen Square. He hid the negatives in the dope water tank to avoid police forces search or the fairness will not have spread around the world (Iyer). What triggered this event can be traced back to the Deng Xiaoping era. He was in power after 1979 and the implement reform and opened up policy on subject area such as to industrialized, agriculture, subject field defense, science and technology, four modernizations. After a decade of reform, social and economic problems, such as a getup wealth gap and serious inflation workers were dissatisfied because their salaries did not remark up with the pace of inflation, causing large flow of the rural tribe to the cities to make a living, leading to more homeless beggars and other social issues official corruption, and other deep complaints. By the end of 1986, students at the University of cognition and Technology of China in Hefei held anti-corruption protests. Then, Shanghai, Beijing and other cities have also lead to student protests, they asked the government to carry out democratic reforms. CPC (Commu nist society of China) General Secretary Hu Yaobang was tough because of the absence of clearance, and he had been criticized and resigned from office in the following year the General Secretary (Lui).The spring of 1989, the international communist forces collapsed. Democratic movements began in Eastern Europe. Inspired by the movement, in late April 1989, students and Beijing residents protests gathered in Tiananmen Square. Since then, the whole country has undergone a similar student protest movement. On June 3 in the evening, the CPC decided to light troops to suppress, to disperse the crowd in and around Tiananmen Square, the regular army opened fire to the masses, and even tanks shot protesters. By 4 in the morning, the army controlled Square, people were forced to evacuate. The next day, after the first night of the crackdown, Tiananmen Square was cleared. All of the students who were in the movement for several months disappeared without a trace. Everything had been wiped out. The tanks in Tiananmen travelled quickly around, declaring military force. The photo of the Tank Man became a symbol of Tiananmen. It showed the courage of ordinary people fighting on behalf of freedom. Unsung heroes brocaded up public concern of their human rights. Before then, people ceaselessly live under fear of the iron fist.To summarize, thanks to the efforts of photographers, the future generation can see the 1980s was not only overwhelmed by national conflicts, politics, and unfortunate accidents, but was also a decade of new beginning. See how photos show the stories of the time. It is not about the photo itself such as how it was constructed, or what kind of the camera photographers used, but it is about the nitty-grittys that those photos are trying to deliver. Sharbat Gula the Afghan girls frightened eyes revealed how it was when international fabianism was still powerful. Beloved President Reagan survived an attempted assassination, and became a god like figure in the 80s. Later, the Chernobyl Accident happened, and if there were not any photos documented, we would never know how intense it was when an unclear powerful plant melted function. At the end of the 80s, Berlin Wall fell down, and people in China stood up for freedom and human rights. Those two photos quickly became a symbol of free spirits. Visual images are so powerful that they could not only view peoples attention, but also shout out message that words failed to present. I appreciate those brave photographers who were there at the first scene so we can look into what was going on in the past. Are we learn our lessons from history. 1980s might seem like a problematic period, but people survived to make it a better tomorrow. Figure 1. McCurry, Steve. Afghan Girl.digital image. Wikipedia. Wikipedia.com,Dec. 1984. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.Figure 2. Reagan Assassination Attempt. Digital image. Wikipedia.Wikipedia.com, 30 Mar. 1981. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.Figure 3. Soviet Authorities. Taken bythe Authorities in the immediate aftermathof Chernobyl Disaster. Digital image. Wikipedia.Wikipedia.com, Apr. 1986. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.Figure 4. AP. Fall of the Berlin Wall. Digital image.The Telegraph. The Telegraph, Nov. 1989. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.Figure 5. Widener, Jeff. The Tank Man was trying to block the way of tankswith his own body alone during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikipedia.com, June 1989. Web. 30 Nov. 2014. play CitedBehind The Wall. New Yorker 90.34 (2014) 31-1. academician see Complete. Web. 30 Nov.2014.Braun, David. How They Found National Geographics Afghan Girl. National Geographic.07 Mar 2003. Web. 28 Oct. 2014.Brands, H. W. Reagan Reborn.American History48.3 (2013) 46-51.Academic appearComplete. Web. 2 Dec. 2014.Chernobyl Accident 1986. Chernobyl. World nuclear Association, 24 Nov. 2014. Web. 28Nov. 2014.Denker, Debra. A Life Revealed Along Afghanistans War-torn Frontier. NationalGeographic. 167 (Jun 1985). 2002. Web. 30 O ct. 2014.Dibb, Paul. The Soviet grow In Afghanistan Lessons To Be Learned?. AustralianJournal Of global personal matters 64.5 (2010) 495-509. Academic Search Complete. Web. 1 Dec. 2014.Iyer, Pico. The Unknown Rebel. (Cover Story). Time 151.14 (1998) 192. Academic SearchComplete. Web. 4 Dec. 2014.Leslie, John. The Fall Of The Berlin Wall Twenty Years Later. New Zealand InternationalReview 34.5 (2009) 21-24. Academic Search Complete. Web. 4 Dec. 2014.Lui, Andrew. Looking Back At Tiananmen Square. Peace Review 12.1 (2000) 139-145.Academic Search Complete. Web. 30 Nov. 2014.Raines, Howell. Reagan Wounded In Chest By Gunman Outlook Good After 2-Hour operating theatreAide And 2 Guards Shot Suspect Held. The New York Time Mar. 1981, Late City ed. 1. Print.Rothman, Lily. Witness To History Reporters Recall The Berlin WallS Fall. Time.Com(2014) N.PAG. Academic Search Complete. Web. 30 Nov. 2014.United States. Office of the Historian. The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the U.S.Respons e, 19781980. The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the U.S. Response, 19781980. Office of the Historian, 31 Oct. 2013. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.United States. U.S.NRC. Backgrounder on Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident.U.S.NRC. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 25 Apr. 2014. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.

Analytical Test Methods in Downstream Processing

analytic Test Methods in Downstream motioningAndrea Waldvogel g everywherenance of analytic Test Methods in Downstream Processing admittance timberland, arctic and skill argon the main principles of tincture assurance of biopharmaceutical medicine products. Quality must be knowing into the product or summons since it usher out non be dischargeed into it. Therefore, a quality system must comprise of ecesis, variegate sway, training, quality curb and vendor assurance amongst others.1-3An effective confirmation does not only provide a high degree of confidence that the done for(p) drug product consistently and reliably meets all quality leasements still as substantially leads to economic bene curbs by reducing the cost associated with process monitoring, consume and testing.4 Biopharmaceutical companies must perform facility, utility and equipment administration/qualification, process test copy, computing machine and computer systems check, cleaning governanc e and analytic order acting acting acting validation.5 This visit trace provide focus on analytic regularity validation, also referred to as analytic appendage validation. analytic regularitys ar genuine to measure characteristics such as molecular identity, purity, potency, and safety of raw materials, in-process samples and final drug products and to monitor the manufacturing process. The descend of tests should be adequate to show manufacturing consistency and the impact of substitutes on the quality of the drug product. All orders must be demonstrated to be habilitate for their intended purpose before they are employed.5,6 analytic regularity validation means establishing scrolled evidence that provides high degree of assurance that a specific method, and the ancillary instruments included in the method, go forth consistently chip in results that accurately reflect the quality characteristics of the product tested.7This report begins by providing an everypla ceview over or so of the regulations and guidelines link up to uninflected method validation. The second section introduces the newlyfangled lifecycle preliminary to method validation and section three gives an insight into uninflected method validation in biopharmaceutical downstream impact. The final section concludes the report with a summary of the main points discussed.There are many polar regulations, guidelines and pharmacopeial monographs concerned with uninflected method validation. As it would go beyond the image of this document to write about all of them, the report focuses on rough to give an overview.1.1 Regulations test copy is base on, scarce not prescribed by regulatory requirement. It is best viewed as an essential and integral part of neat Manufacturing Practice (GMP) for the assurance of quality. Compliance with validation requirements is necessary for fixing approval for clinical trials and to market new products.4In the U.S. for example, 21 CFR Part 211.165(e) situates8The accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility of test methods employed by the firm shall be established and attested. Such validation and documentation may be accomplished in accordance with 211.194(a)(2).21 CFR Part 211.194(a) (2)8A statement of each method use in the testing of the sample. The statement shall indicate the location of info that establish that the methods utilize in the testing of the sample meet proper standards of accuracy and dependableness as applied to the product tested. (). The suitability of all testing methods used shall be verified under developed conditions of use.The requirement of validation is also implied in 211.100(a)8There shall be written procedures for production and process control designed to assure that the drug products take in the identity, strength, quality, and purity they purport or are represented to possess.1.2 signpostsThe first counsellor documents on uninflected method validation were p ublished in the 1990s. In the course of time, a draw play of revision activity has taken place allowing the incorporation of new sexual climaxes to science.The match ICH Q2(R1) ecesis of uninflected Procedures Text and Methodology guideline, issued in 2005, is considered the primary fiber for recommendations and definitions on validation characteristics for analytic procedures and has tended to take on the role of a regulatory expectation. In the United States, it has been used as a guidance on with the related compendial documents USP Analytical Procedure Validation, Analytical Procedure Verification, and Analytical Procedure Transfer. However, those documents do not provide support for the users to accurately take and control sources of variability.6,9In 2013, a Stimuli to the Revision Process topic on Lifecycle Management of Analytical Procedures published by the USP Validation and Verification happy Panel proposed a Quality by Design (QbD) approach to method develo pment, validation, and public presentation verification of an analytical method via a lifecycle concept. They suggested that the traditional approaches adumbrate in the U.S. Pharmacopeial monographs , , and should be revise and assembled into a single new prevalent information chapter Lifecycle Management of Analytical Procedures and a new general chapter specifying the radical requirements. This would, for the first time, formally link method development and method validation inwardly pharmacopeia.6,10In 2016, a general chapter prospectus on The Analytical Procedure Lifecycle was posted on the U.S. Pharmacopeial Notices and a draft of a new USP General Chapter Statistical Tools for Procedure Validation was published in the U.S. Pharmacopeial meeting place (U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention).11,12In August 2017, a new general USP Chapter Validation of Compendial Methods testament become official. This is an effort to better align the validation concept with the revised FDA guidance for industry Analytical Procedures and Methods Validation for Drugs and Biologics issued in 2015. However, instead of including a section on Lifecycle Management of Analytical Procedures only a rootage has been added. Depending on the development of the chapters and , USP may be revised again.13Growing sentiency that the implementation of an analytical method with adequate quality steps designed into the procedure during the development phase led to the development of a lifecycle approach for analytical procedure validation.102.1 Stages of the Modern Lifecycle come outThe modern lifecycle approach is based on the Quality by Design (QbD) approach outlined in ICH Q8(R2) guideline and defines activities and deliverables for every stage of method validation. The quest diagram provides an overview. realise 1 QbD Approach for Analytical Methods2.1.1 Stage 1 Procedure Design, Development, and instinctTo be able to design quality into a method to look into that the method i s reliable and meets the analytical target profile (ATP) defined at the beginning of this stage, an understanding of how the procedure works is key. Risk assessment should be undertaken to identify variables that could fork over an influence on the method. The knowledge of variables and their impact is not only important for the development of a control strategy but also for the determination of a design space. The design space pass on reduce the amount of revalidation work considerably when the method is used operationally. primal elements of this stage are shown in bod 1 no. 1-3.10 proper(ip) method development including the evaluation of cogency is essential for an effective analytical procedure.10 Robustness is a measure of the methods capacity to remain unaffected by small variations in method parameters and provides an indication of its reliability during normal usage.9 At this stage, system suitability parameters are established which help to ensure that the analytical m ethod remains valid whenever used.9Without developing a robust method and an understanding of how a change of key parameters will impact its implementation, the actual method validation step will be difficult.102.1.2 Stage 2 Procedure Performance QualificationThe lifecycle approach uses the term procedure work qualification instead of method validation.Procedure performance qualification is the verification of the performance of the analytical procedure (either a new one or a revised procedure) against the requirements of the ATP.10If the procedure development has been done correctly, this step should plainly be a confirmation that it is fit for the intended purpose. In cases where tho controls need to be added to ensure reliable results the analytical control strategy, developed during stage 1, will need an update.10Method validation work should be performed by a user laboratory under the same conditions as it will be used to comply with existing GMP regulations.102.1.3 Stage 3 Implementation and Continued Procedure Performance VerificationThis stage involves checking how the procedure works during operational use and that it remains in a state of control.10For this purpose, inputs on reliability and performance of the method gathered from operators and customer complaints will be evaluated. Performance indicators such as system suitability, quality control samples and out-of-specification (OOS) results are tracked and trended.10The method should be continually improved by means of corrective and preventive action to reduce the number of out-of-specification (OOS) results. Any change to improve the overall performance needs to be assessed development change control procedures. As shown in Figure 3, the nature of the change specifies what actions birth to be taken.6,10,14Figure 2 Change Types and appropriate Actions2.2 Traditional (Current) Approach vs Lifecycle ApproachIn their Stimuli to Revision paper, the USP Expert Panel recommends the adoption of a lifecycle approach for the management of analytical procedures. In their conclusion, they outline the advantages of a lifecycle approach by comparing it to the traditional (current) approach to analytical procedure validation (Figure 1).6Downstream processing in biopharmaceutical manufacturing involves many steps from recovery over purification to fill finish. Next to in-process monitoring of process parameters such as pH and temperature, analytical testing for the determination of quantity, identity, strength, potency, purity (product- and process related impurities), bioburden and endotoxin has to be performed on raw materials, intermediates, drug spirits and finished drug products. just about of the analytical methods in downstream processing are HPLC, gel electrophoresis, PCR, ELISA, Bradford, hemagglutination (HA) and plaque assay.All critical steps in a process have to be validated and less critical steps have to be under control. The criticality of an analytical method i s go overd by risk assessment. There are various ways to perform method validation. The manufacturer is responsible for(p) for choosing the suitable validation procedure and justifying it.1,7,93.1 Types of Analytical ProceduresThe iv most common types of analytical procedures are identification tests, qualitative and quantitative tests for impurities and assay. Assay involves the quantitative measurement of the major component(s) in the drug substance and drug product.93.2 Team SelectionThe validation project manager is responsible for the selection of a Cross-Functional-Team (CFT) from various related departments and functional areas. He or she is also in charge of assigning responsibilities and assuring that all force-out involved are trained powerful.73.3 Analytical Method Validation protocolThe first step in method validation is the preparation of a protocol that defines the work to be done to demonstrate that the method is fit for its intended use.7,10The analytical metho d validation protocol should contain the by-line sectionsPurposeShort description of what is to be accomplishedScope of the project specifying the test methods and productsOverviewGeneral description of the test methodSummary of the pic studiesIdentification of method type and validation approachTest method exercises and validation protocolIntended use of each test method applicationAnalytical performance characteristics for each test method applicationResourcesEnd user laboratory where the method validation is to be performedEquipment and materials to be used in the method validationSpecial instructions on handling, stability, and storage for each materialAppendicesReferences, signature, and a review worksheet for all military unitSpecific tasks for all personnel and documentation of their trainingListings of all equipment and package necessary to perform the method validationDocument and materials worksheets used in method validationTest method procedures (SOPs)Before the met hod validation can begin the protocol must be agreed upon by the CFT and approved.73.4 Performance Characteristics TestsPerformance characteristics and their sufferance criteria are defined during the characterisation studies at the development stage of the analytical method. Depending on the method and its intended use, some performance characteristics tests may be omitted, the number of replicates may be increase or cut down, or acceptance criteria may be adapted. All decisions have to be based on scientifically sound judgment. It is important that well characterised acknowledgement materials, with documented purity, are used for testing performance characteristics.7,9The following table outlines the performance characteristics and their meaning, test procedures, how data should be reported and acceptance criteria according to ICH Q2(R1) and FDA Guidance for Industry on Analytical Procedures and Method Validation.truenessCloseness of test results to the true valueFor drug subst ances, accuracy measurements are obtained by comparing test results to the analysis of a standard reference material or to a second, well-characterized method.For drug products, accuracy is evaluated by analysing synthetic mixtures (containing all excipient materials in the correct proportions) spiked with known quantities of analyte.Guidelines recommend that data be collected from a marginal of nine determinations over at least three absorption levels covering the specified range.The data should be reported as the pct recovery of the known, added amount, or as the deflexion between the mean and true value with confidence intervals (such as 1 SD).Acceptability criteria are defined by end users but seldom fall outside 97-103% of the nominal value. Statistical analysis can be applied using a one sample t-test.Precision phase of obligation among test results when the method is applied repeatedly to multiple samplings of a homogeneous samplePrecision is commonly described in moneta ry value of repeatability, intermediate precision, and reproducibilityRepeatability is investigated by analysing a nominal of nine determinations using the same equipment and sample, covering the specified range of the procedure, or a minimum of six determinations at 100% of the test niggardness and reported as percent relative standard deviation (RSD).Intermediate precision refers to the agreement among the results from a single laboratory, despite potential variations in sample preparation, analysts, or equipment.Reproducibility refers to the agreement among the results from different laboratories. Results are reported as % RSD, and the percent difference in the mean values between the analysts must be within specifications. Less than 2% RSD is often recommended, but less than 5% RSD can be acceptable for minor components.Specifity ability to measure accurately and specifically the analyte of interest in the presence of other componentsIn drug assays, specificity takes into acc ount the degree of interference from other active ingredients, excipients, impurities, degradation products, or matrices.In chromatography, it ensures that a chromatographic peak corresponds to a single component. Specificity can be demonstrated by the resolution between peaks of interest.Limit of catching(LOD)Lowest concentration of an analyte in a sample that can be detectedIn a chromatography laboratory, the most common way to determine both the LOD and the LOQ is using signal-to-noise ratios (S/N), commonly 31 for LOD and 101 for LOQ.An appropriate number of samples must be analyzed to richly validate the method performance at the limit.Limit of quantitation(LOQ)Lowest concentration of an analyte in a sample that can be quantified with acceptable precision and accuracy under the stated operational conditions of the methodLinearityAbility of a method to provide results that are directly proportional to analyte concentration within a given rangeGuidelines specify that a minimum of five concentration levels be used to determine the range and linearity, along with certain minimum specified ranges depending on the type of method.The range is usually expressed in the same units as the test results obtained by the method (for example, nanograms per millilitre).Data to be reported generally include the equation for the calibration curve line, the coefficient of determination (r 2), residuals, and the curve itself.RangeInterval between the fastness and lower concentrations of an analyte that have been demonstrated to be determined with acceptable precision, accuracy, and linearity using the methodRobustnessMeasure of a methods capacity to obtain comparable and acceptable results when perturbed by small but deliberate variations in procedural parametersIt provides an indication of the methods suitability and reliability during normal use.During a robustness learning, method parameters (such as eluent report card, gradient, and detector settings) are intention ally varied to study the effects on analytical results. Common chromatography parameters used to measure and document robustness include critical peak pair resolution (R s), crustal plate number (N) or peak width in gradient elution, safekeeping time (t R), tailing factor (T F), peak area (and height) and concentration.Robustness studies are expected to be done during method development.Table 7 gives an overview of the performance characteristic tests that have to be performed on different types of analytical procedures.9Figure 6 Performance Characteristic tests performed on different Types of Analytical ProceduresThe performance characteristics are evaluated by comparing the results to the specifications defined at the development stage.An analytical method is considered to be validated when it meets the specifications defined at the development stage. erst an analytical method has been made a formal part of the manufacturing process, it is passing difficult to remove it. In th e event of changes in the drug substance, the composition of the finished product and in the analytical procedure, revalidation may be necessary.5,7,93.5 Validation DocumentationEvery validation step needs to be documented to be able to provide written evidence to the regulatory governing that a specific method is fit for its purpose. Documentation associated with method validation are validation protocols, standard operating procedures (SOPs), specifications and validation reports.Downstream processing in biopharmaceutical manufacturing involves many analytical methods which help to ensure quality, safety and efficacy of the final drug product. Development, validation and control of a robust analytical method is a lengthy and difficult task. However, without written evidence that an analytical method is fit for its intended use the company will not obtain a marketing authorisation.Over time, many guidelines and pharmacopeial monographs have been issued and a lot of revision activi ty has happened especially following the Stimuli to Revision paper published in 2013. Even though, no comprehensive guideline or monograph incorporating the modern lifecycle approach has been issued yet.Although proper development of robust and effective analytical methods is more time-consuming and expensive, it has many advantages. It leads to more efficient validation, variability is reduced and controlled and analytical method-related out-of-specification results and failure investigation are minimised. Additionally, changing method parameters within the design space facilitates continual improvement as it does not require regulatory re-approval.Validation is a team effort. Members of the CFT need to be properly trained. Their first and most demanding task is the preparation of a protocol which defines the scene of the validation project and provides all details necessary for a undefeated validation. It also defines, depending on the type of the analytical procedure, which per formance characteristics need to be tested. The use of well characterised reference materials with known purity is important. Analytical method validation is considered to be complete when all acceptance criteria are met and a validation report has been written. BibliographyReferences1 Choudhary, A. (2009). Validation in pharmaceutic Manufacturing. Pharmaceutical Guideline. Accessed on 1 March 2017. acquirable on network http//www.pharmaguideline.com/2010/12/validation.html2 International Conference on Harmonization (2009). Harmonised three-party Guideline ICH Q8(R2) Pharmaceutical Development. Accessed on 1 March 2017. open on net profit https//www.ich.org/fileadmin/Public_Web_Site/ICH_Products/Guidelines/Quality/Q8_R1/Step4/Q8_R2_Guideline.pdf3 Stockbridge, P. (2008). Biopharmaceutical Fill and Finish Technical and operational Challenges for the Latest Formulations and Devices. BioProcess International. Accessed on 7 March 2017. Available on meshwork http//www.bioprocessin tl.com/2008/biopharmaceutical-quality-assurance-184041/4 Nandhakumar, L. Dharmamoorthy, G. Rameshkumar, S. Chandrasekaran, S. (2011). An Overview of Pharmaceutical Validation Quality Assurance View Point. IJRPC, 1(4). Accessed on 1 March 2017. Available on cyberspace http//www.caidat.org/m4atomp3/2561456335400862.pdf5 Lutz, H. (2005). Introduction to Validation of Biopharmaceuticals. BioPharm International. Accessed on 1 March 2017. Available on meshing http//www.biopharminternational.com/introduction-validation-biopharmaceuticals6 USP Validation and Verification Expert Panel (2013). Lifecycle Management of Analytical Procedures Method Development, Procedure Performance Qualification, and Procedure Performance Verification. Stimuli to the Revision Process Article. Accessed on 1 March 2017. Available on Internet https//www.usp.org/sites/ default/files/usp_pdf/EN/USPNF/revisions/lifecycle_pdf.pdf7 Shabir, G. A. (2004). Step-by-Step Analytical Methods Validation and Protocol in the Q uality System Compliance Industry. IVT Network Analytical Method Validation, pp. 4-14. Accessed on 2 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.ivtnetwork.com/sites/default/files/Analytical%20Method%20Validation.pdf8 U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, split 211.165(e), 211.194(a) and 211.100(a). Accessed on 2 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=2119 International Conference on Harmonization (2005). Harmonised Tripartite Guideline ICH Q2(R1) Validation of Analytical Procedures, Text and Methodology. Accessed on 1 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.ich.org/products/guidelines/quality/article/quality-guidelines.html10 McDowall, R. D. (2014). GLP and GMP Approaches to Method Validation Going the same Way?. Spectroscopy, 29(4). Accessed on 1 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.spectroscopyonline.com/glp-and-gmp-approaches-method-validation-going-same-way11 U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention (2016). General Chapter Prospectus The Analytical Procedure Lifecycle. USP-NF, Notices. Accessed on 2 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.usp.org/usp-nf/notices/1220-analytical-procedure-lifecycle12 U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention (2014). New USP requirements for Analytical Method Validation. USP-NF, Notices. Accessed on 2 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.usp.org/usp-nf/pharmacopeial-forum13 ECA Academy (2017). rewrite USP Chapter Validation of Compendial Methods approved. Accessed on 2 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.gmp-compliance.org/gmp-news/revised-usp-chapter-1225-validation-of-compendial-methods-approved14 Huber, L. (2015). Recent Updates and Trends in Analytical Method Validation. PPP of The Agilent critical Compliance Seminar. Accessed on 7 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.agilent.com/cs/library/flyers/Public/Recent_regulatory_updates_and_trends_in_analytical_method_validation.pdfIllustrationsFigure 1 Huber, L. (2015). Recent Updates and Trends in Analytical Method Validation. PPP of The Agilent Critical Compliance Seminar. Accessed on 7 March 2017. Available on Internet http//www.agilent.com/cs/library/fl

The Importance Of Security In Distributed Systems Information Technology Essay

The Importance Of protective cover In Distributed bodys Information Technology EssayThe total number of data processor carcasss installed within any organization has been increasing at a phenomenal rate. The sex act ease of installing and utilizing ready reckoner applications is a compelling reason for get togethering computer agreements together and distributing or sharing the work. These distributed formations allow you to take better value of the vast array of impact power now available.Distributed computing in all likelihood means many contrasting things to many varied people. To some, it means leaf node or server, it is cooperative processing and to still other, its using a distributed database. hike explanations and descriptions whitethorn be required to hold in that everyone has a common situation and under acheing of a distributed computing frame. When referencing a distributed computing formation, every substance ab drug engagementr should be able to s ee the same thing. A distributed computing dust is composed of system of rules elements which atomic number 18 then distributed across disaccordent processing platforms connected by a network.In this paper, aim 10.0 fragment. Each of the vocalisationition leave aloneing list. office 2.0 is about Distributed dust. Section 3.0 is about Threat of distributed System. Distributed System Security will describe in Section 4.0. The next Section 5.0 is about Distributed System Security appliance. Distributed System Security Architecture will describe on Section 6.0.We buns know about Distributed System Requirements in Section 7.0. In Section 8.0, we lowlife know Factors bear on Distributed System Security. Contribution in the credentials, we jackpot see on Section 9.0 and finally Section 10 concludes this paper.Distributed SystemToday, computers argon not stand alone units. Several computers atomic number 18 being networked together to form greathearted computer systems . Not only argon computers being network, but they atomic number 18 being networked into large distributed systems where each individual computer, node if you will, can patch up use of the applications distributed throughout the system (Dobry Schanken, 1994).Study on the formal precondition of authorization has become a major challenge in the genuine development of secure computing and IT systems (Yun, 2008).Figure 1. Authorization (Access control) in a distributed environment.Consider a distributed environment as shown in Figure 1, in which different users can access various resources through the network (Internet). in that respectfore, from the definition above, it indicates how an organization can benefit from using the distributed system as shown on a lower floorResource sharingIt is possible to use different types of hardw are, software or data wherever in the system hence reduce uncalled-for costs related with the tools. Also it supports resource sharing model that descr ibes the government agency resources are provided, the way they are used as well as the way provider and users interact amid each other. There are more benefits much(prenominal) as through search engines and computer found working were different information can be shared in inexpensive and easy way.ConcurrencySeveral processes can take place at the same time while components access as well as update any of the shared resources including databases. The important thing is that concurrent updates mustiness be coordinated in articulate to maintain integrity of the system. receptivityIt allows detailed interfaces of components to be published and supports the integration of new components with existing once.ScalabilityThe system is capable of accommodating changes in case of increase number in of users and resources it should be able to respond faster. This can be through with(p) by adding a number of processors with high speed to the system. Therefore the computer architecture and murder must be flexible enough to allow it.Fault leewayDistributed systems are capable of run correctly even if at that place mayhap some defects within the system (internal errors) for the purpose of increasing system reliability within an organization o a business.3.0 Threat of Distributed SystemsThere are different threats when distributed system is concerned, as any networked computer system can face it. It is important to implement countermeasures for all expected threats for the purpose of the system to remain constant and cost effective. Those threats can be distinguished depending on their inter exploit as follows belowDenial of serviceInvolves attacks that affect the availableness of information from the system to the user resulting to paralysation of the entire operation of an organization or part of activities depending on the attack. The use of resource control mechanism can champion in solving the above problem by applying time responses, sizing responses, and connection control. Also problem detection by time latency in system can easily be done if there is a dramatic increase of latency then defense reaction of service (DoS) can be detected as well as addressed.Information leakageIs one of the threats of computer system specifically distributed systems where unsanded information can easily be revealed to unauthorized users that results to lack of confidentiality. wildcat accessThis can occur due to the reason that the physiologic contour is not strong enough to protect such threats from accessing the system (distributed system). This is cognize as inter process intercourse threats. There is a train to for an organization that is willing to implement access control system to solemnize in mind three things which are models, access control policies as well as mechanisms (Krause Tipton, 1998). Access control policies will enable organizations to be able to specify different ways that will lead to becoming management of access t o resources as well as information which are the valuable assets of an organization.Distributed System SecurityThe objective of any shelter system is the ability to forestall a hush-hush. This is as true automated systems as much as it is for people. It is as important to keep the information secret when it is stored as well as when it sent over a network. A secure system is the one that can be trusted to keep secret, and important word is trusted. arrogances can be defined as a confident reliance on the integrity, honesty or justice of some other. Trust refers to the ability of the application to perform actions with integrity and to perform its functions on a continuing basis.However, individuals, governments and institutions such as banks, hospitals and other commercial enterprise will only consign their secrets to a computer system if they can be absolutely certain of confidentiality (Randell Rushby, 2007).The security architecture incorporates elements to safeguard the co nfidentiality of information and ensure that all access to the computing resources is authorized and authenticated. Defined security architecture can be used to ensure the design of applications and systems will bump into the required security objectives. The architecture will help guide decisions between systems and across platforms and ensure all of the systems meet a standard stripped level of security.Nevertheless, the security still has some problem. For example, the problems of maintaining security are deepen because the sharing of secrets is generally desired but only in a tightly controlled manner. In case, an individual can choose other individuals or groups with whom he wishes to share his private information (Randell Rushby, 2007). This sharing is called discretionary security because it is permitted at the discretion of the individual. The trusted portion of a secure system is normally identified with a small operating system nuclear. The progress to is a security k ernel. It is the rest of the operating system and all applications and user programs belong to the un-trusted element. However, certain difficulties attend the use of such kernelized systems.In the part of the structure of all secure systems constructed or designed recently has been influenced by the concept of a reference admonisher (Randell Rushby, 2007). A reference monitor is a small, inaccessible, reliable mechanism that controls the behavior of un-trusted system elements by mediating their references to such external entities as data and other un-trusted elements. Each access is check over against a record of the accesses that the security policy authorizes for that element.Distributed System SecurityMechanismCryptographyThe security of information transmitted from one node to another is questionable, therefore there is a need of using a neat method of transforming it into unreadable formats (secrets writing) through cryptography. The use of a single recognize or public k ey cryptographic algorithm which is suitable for defend message content by hiding information carried by a packet during the transmission process. This can be accomplished using RSA or AES algorithms.Authentication protocolProvides a series of communication procedures between users of the system and the server for the purpose of securing the communication process.Access control mechanismThis can be done using access control careens (ACL) that consists of a list related to an object that states all the subjects that can be allowed to access the object, as well as the rights to the object. ACL normally are implemented directly or as an approximation in recent Operating systemsDistributed System Security ArchitectureThe OSI Open system interconnection Reference model is practically used to depict largely of distributed system architecture for it has the ability to describe various levels of service essential to support distributed transactions. Autonomous computer systems and their processes pass along through the first four levels of OSI-RM.Middleware is considered as the bridge used to connect distributed applications across different physical locations, with different hardware platforms, network technologies, operating systems, as well as different programming languagesIn order to design, maintain and utilize the computational run offered by the distributed system, it is suitable to use abstraction of the distributed system physical architecture (Donnelly. 1979). The abstraction views the distributed system as a collection of processes that normally go throughs with each other in the process. Processes communicate by passing messages there if two processes communicate it means the communication is done over communication channels.7.0 Distributed System SecurityRequirementThere are many requirements of distributed system security that focus on the realm of IT security criteria. That is the development of protection pro loads. The protection profile is me ant to describe requirements that must be met to achieve varying levels of security. These requirements presented component, categorized or relating to assurance. For example, trusted retrieval is the components that refer to functions that respond to anticipated failures or discontinuity in operations (Dobry Schanken, 1994). following(a) a system failures the system must be able to gratify the Trusted Computing Base (TCB) secure states. Failure from which the system must be able to anticipate and securely recover include action that fail to complete because they detect exceptional conditions during their operations. The distributed system must be competent of recognizing failures in which of its components. This is because the overall TCB is a discontinuity in the protection provided by them. Another example is cryptography. The cryptography is a method of securing of information that has the components to implant the guidelines for using cryptography to secure the paths between nodes. Encryption and decryption executing of the system is the factor of the confidentiality and integrity of data communications .So, several different types of encryption may need to be used depending on the users environment.Although, there have several requirement of distributed system security such as trusted recovery, trusted path, security management and etc. They already have new concepts required to secure the connections between the various products that comprise the distributed system need to be included. A distributed system is one of the first implementations for be secure, must not only make use of traditional computer security concepts but have to utilize communication security concepts as well.Factors Affecting Distributed System SecurityThere is a need to analyze and identify the factors as well as issues related to trustworthiness of services provided by distributed systems apart from network topology and node paygrade. These factors includes distributed syste m physical security environment, interactions between different security mechanisms and distributed system management structure, are very important and relevant compared to network topology and node evaluation levels. Below is more information concerning the factors makeed above.Physical securityThere are some differences that occur in a distributed systems physical environment such as those that occurs due to the reason that the elements/components of a distributed system are placed in different location which is the result of changes overtime in its environment. jurisdiction authoritiesThe wide spread heterogeneity in the physical security environment is the result of the process of administering a distributed system by ten-fold jurisdiction authorities due to the types of mechanisms supported.Interaction between security mechanismsIn distributed system nodes are from different manufacturers, families of a single manufacturer, different versions which results into different sec urity mechanism. In case stand-alone system or distributed systems that may be using different discretionary access control mechanisms are interconnected for the purpose of forming a single distributed system then it brings riskiness (Anderson. 1985). The interactions between different policies implanted in trusted subjects running in different nodes bring dangers to the system.ContributionThe analysis presented in this paper was mention distributed system security that is a computer security architecture that provides a suite of functions including login, authentication, and access control in a distributed system to differ from other similar architectures. The distributed system security includes many applications that can help the system to protect to failure network. Therefore, this paper is suitable for individuals, governments and institutions such as banks, hospitals and other commercial enterprise that they would like to know the information of distributed system security.10 .0 ConclusionDistributed system security is fundamentally more complex than stand-alone system security. Current computer security concepts assume that trusts is assigned to a distributed system element on the basis of viewpoint. This security mechanism for distributed file systems solves many of the performance and security problems in existing systems today.

Islamic Fundamentalism And Terrorism

Moslem rudimentaryism And terrorist actIntroductionAll pietism preaches peace and brotherhood and Islam is no different. However, how do you justify the killing of thousands of innocents by the Muslim conster realmists. Islamic act of act of act of terrorist act is the common term for violence,1 rooted on Islamic fundamentalism, and aimed at defending, or even promoting, Islamic culture, ordering, and values in opposition to the policy-making, onlyegedly imperialistic, and socialal influences of non- Moslems, and the Western mankind in particular.1Today, it is terra firma(a) terrorism has come to arc of the military personnel politics after terror approach shots on World all(prenominal)ot Centre on 09 family line 2001. While savoring at the sphericity of the phenomenon of terrorism, it has to be appreciated that in front terrorist groups attain their national, roleal or global stature the first begin the comparable at local levels. A consideration of the d ividing lines of diverse terrorist groups would indicate that the growth of the small groups into the national or supra national movements could take a crap been attributed to, if non large measure, to the frustration of the people, with the softness of their governments to provide with the elementary justice, security and welf ar. It is difficult to say at which saddle local terror groups joins hands with the other groups operating in the region to form supra national entities that can operate trans national boundaries. If cover steps ar not interpreted immediately with due foresight, terror menace can wellhead become the the monumentalgest curse to mankind.2Varieties of TerrorismFundamental conformist religious movements countenance been associated with terrorism in almost all parts of the world starting from Middle eastern, Africa, Central and South East Asia, China, Europe and US. It would be prudent to is necessary to study terrorism beforehand further investigatin g the link between fundamental godliness and the clutch of violence. Terrorism is difficult to define as one persons terrorist is some others freedom involutioner. semipolitical violence can be of various types. There are various types of egregious political violence that are some durations conflated. Certified text file on terrorism seldom define terrorism or enjoin it from supplementary forms of hostile political action, for example, guerilla movements, ethnic conflict or racial movements. Countries frequently trademark opposition/resistance/demonstrations as terrorist actions to let down and dishonor much(prenominal) movements. Ahmad (1998) offered a typology of five varieties of terrorism-State terrorism.religious terrorism.Criminal terrorism.Pathological terrorism.Political terrorism.There are different motives for these. few highly visible expressions of terrorism can be thought of as spectacles of violence, media events staged to dramatize an figure by gaining the attention of the world. Terrorism acts as both a symbolic message and supposed mean of social change aiming at political transformation. The terrorist act dramatically advertises the iniquity to a larger community that may support their goals. Further, the pain and distraint inflicted is believed, at least by the terrorists, to avenge a prior injustice and/or attain the organizations goal.3JehadThe word Jihad links its origin to the Arabic word JHD, which message strive. Jihad in essence means the measures taken to practice religion even during the times of adversity in the face of oppression and persecution. In Arabic, the footing Mujahid/Mujahideen and jihad, are Islamic-derived terms indicating righteous struggle, and are commonly designd to refer to what the Western world calls Islamic terrorists and Islamic terrorism. In the non-Muslim world, this usage is a good deal considered to be wide of the mark and giving religious glorification to murder, and Islamic terms uni form hirabis and Muharib check been promoted as alternatives when referring to terrorists.Islamic terrorism is itself a controversial phrase, although its usage is widespread throughout the English-speaking world. Ordinary Muslims who have nothing to do with terrorism get a line it reprehensible beca wasting disease it forces upon them a label simply be behave they, too, are believers of Islam. In fact, the common Muslim believes that you are making him a racial despise target by using the word Islam with terrorism. Bernard Lewis believes that the phrase Islamic terrorism is apt, because although Islam, as a religion is not particularly conducive to terrorism or even tolerant of terrorism4. In his own haggling- Islam has had an essentially political character from its very foundation to the present day. An adumbrate association between religion and politics, between power and cult, marks a principal distinction between Islam and other religions. In impostal Islam and when ce as well in resurgent fundamentalist Islam, beau ideal is the sole citation of sovereignty. God is the head of the state. The state is Gods state. The army is Gods army. The treasury is Gods treasury, and the enemy, of course, is Gods enemy.This argument is countered by Jamal Nassar and Karim H. Karim, who contend that because in that location are over a billion adherents of the religion, the phenomenon is to a greater termination precisely regarded as Islamist terrorism or, because describes political ideologies rooted in interpretations of Islam. In this vein, describing terrorism as Islamic may confirm a negative perspective of all things Islamic.5Radicalisation of IslamAs has been noted, late Islamic political fundamentalism is the warfaree of a disposition by some Muslims to collapse to a stark(a) faith in order to counter and overcome growing shove from an increasingly westernized world. Identifying and analyzing these pressure points is essential to understanding the rationale behind the often violent expressions of Islamic political fundamentalism whose ultimate purpose is to motive individual, uncouth and world under the sovereign reign of Allah. As has been noted, Islamic political fundamentalist movements are a twentieth-century culture. Not surprisingly, the majority of these movements are of the Sunni variety. Of the clxxv Islamic fundamentalist groups (mainly of the political variety) in the Arab world as determine by Dekmejian from 1970-1995, only 32 were Shiite fundamentalists (with an additional four having both Sunni and Shiite followers). The modern era cornerstone clerics have interpreted the Koran to their advantage and have used it effectively to streng so the military wing of Islamic fundamentalists and use terrorism as a tool against the non practitioners of Islam. Some clerics supporting the catchy stand against non Islamic societies and nations are reflected in the subsequent paragraphs.Radical as part of his sermo n one Friday in August 2004, the Palestinian fashion plate Abu Muhammad al Maqdisi told his followers,Cutting off heads is part of our religion. Indeed, by God, slaughtering Allahs enemies is part of our religion. It should be done in accordance with the interest of Islamic nations.In other article titled The Infidels volition be Obliterated, the cleric Seif al-Din al-Ansari writesAllah made withering the infidels one of his steadfast decrees. fit in to (divine) natural law of alternating fortunes, Allah say (Allah will) obliterate the infidels.It inevitably follows that this wisdom.has become the way the life is to be lived. The (Koran) mentions his decree frequently, to the point that it builds you feel that it is truth of supreme importance.In another context, Shiekh Nasser ibn Hameed, an al Quaeda affiliated Saudi cleric, considers the permissibility of using the weapons of mass destruction to bring about the will of Allah. The sheikh concludes that, considering what Amer icans have done-If a dud was dropped on themthat would annihilate 10 million and burn their lands to the same extent that they burned the Muslim lands this is permissible with no need to mention some(prenominal) other proof. Yet if we want to annihilate a greater number, we need further proof6Creating an IdeologyA century ago, Islam had the same Koran, the same Prophet Muhammad, the same stories about founding of the faith, and the same religious and the legitimate traditions. Yet there were no suicides bombers like Salah Ghandour, no arsonist leading like Hassan Nasrallah, no militant sheikhs like Yousaf al-Qaradawi and no bloody conglomerates like Hamas and al Qaeda. And that there was not should give pause to all those who claim that Islam is, necessarily, a violent and destructive faith. To attribute todays problems to the essence of the religion is to commit a grave error of oversimplification. Islam is a grand tradition that has proven itself capable of sustaining many different cultures, philosophies, approaches to life and political arrangements. Since September 11, and to a lesser extent before, many authors have probed the hi baloney of Islam and the Arabs in search of the roots of extremism. One good place to start is the story from the recent past, the story of Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian writer who is described as the talented hero of every one of the groups that eventually went to Al Qaeda, their Karl Marx their guide.7Sayyid Qutb was born in Egypt in 1906. His early education was in the western brass of education. afterward completing his studies, he took up the job of a teacher. He ulterior became a novelist and a functionary in Ministry of Education, Egypt. In late forties he did his masters from Colorado. However, during 1930 to 1950, Qutb lost faith in the secular system and became a report Islamist. On return from America, Qutb supported the Nassers secular revolution. difference of opinion arose between Nasser and Qutb and later was imprisoned. It was during this time Qutb wrote some of his best known and potent work Milestone (a thirty volume commentary on Koran) and In shade of Koran. Qutb was latter executed by Nasser in 1966, giving Islam its earlier and most revered martyr. Qutb was influenced by Mawdudis writings but constructed a khariji-like extremist ideology. He stressed both Gods sovereignty and governance (hakimiyya) and the unity of God (tawhid) with the resulting unity in nature, religion, society, and state as the foundation of the integrated and all-embracing Islamic system. Qutb transformed the meaning of the Islamic term hijrah (emigration) from a bare(a) description of the Prophets historic migration from Mecca to Medinah to signifying a definite stage in the development of all true Muslim societies hijrah is the response of true Muslims to the state of jahiliyya rife in their society. They must withdraw from society in order to fix a vanguard of committed activists able to take over society when the right time comes.8Some of Qutbs interpretation of Jahiliyyah in his own terminology are as follows-Islam cannot accept any mixing with Jahiliyyah, either in its concept or in the modes of living which which are derived from this concept. Either Islam will remain or Jahiliyyah Islam cannot accept or agree to a lieu which is half Islamic and half Jahiliyyah.The foremost duty of Islam in this world is to depose Jahiliyyah from the leadership of man, and to take the leadership into its own hand and administer the particular (Islamic ) way of life.Indeed, people are not Muslims, as they outcry to b, as long as they live the lier of Jahiliyyah. Today th trade union movement f the call is to return these ignorant people of Islam and make them into the Muslim all over again.A person who feels the need of defence, justification and confession is not capable of presenting Islam to people. Indeed, he is a person who lives the life of Jahiliyyah, take away and full of contradictions, defects and evils, and intends to provide justification for the Jahiliyyah he is in. These are offender against Islam.9Qutbs central mobilizing concept was a reinterpretation of Jahiliyya, and provided an ideology to military faction of Islamic leaders. or so terrorist Islamic groups today, derive their ideology from his writings.Interpretations of the QuranThe role played by the Quran, Islams sacred text, in opposing or in encouraging attacks on civilians is disputed. Certain scholars such as Zakir Naik have said all Muslims should be terrorists in the context of war and fighting evils of society. When he was asked about the verse.Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies, of Allah and your enemies. Quran 860He replied. Every Muslim should be a terrorist. A terrorist is a person who causes terror. The moment a robber sees a policeman he is terrified. A policeman is a terrorist for the robber. A Muslim should be a terrorist for the Robber and all other anti-social elements. The Princeton University Middle Eastern scholar Bernard Lewis, states that Islamic jurisprudence does not allow terrorism. Professor Lewis notes At no time did the (Muslim) jurist approve of terrorism. Nor indeed is there any evidence of the use of terrorism (in Islamic tradition). Muslims are commanded not to kill women, children, or the aged, not to torture or otherwise ill-treat prisoners, to give fair specimen of the opening of hostilities, and to honor agreements.Similarly, the laws of Jihad categorically preclude wanton and indiscriminating slaughter. The warriors in the holy war are urged not to harm non-combatants, women and children, unless they attack you first. A point on which they insist is the need for a plunder declaration of war before beginning hostilities, and for proper warning before resuming hostilities after a truce. What the classical jurists of Islam never remotely considered is the kind of unprovoked, unheralded mass slaughter of uninvolved civil populations that we saw in naked as a jaybird York two weeks ago. For this there is no precedent and no authority in Islam. Indeed it is difficult to find precedents even in the rich register of human wickedness.In 2007, Osama bin Laden, best known for the September 11 attacks, used quotes from the Quran-and a militant Taliban clerics interpretation of those verses-to justify his declaration of war on Pervez Musharraf and the Pakistani army, such asO prophet try hard against the disbelievers and the hypocrites, and be harsh against them. Their abode is hell, and an evil destination it is. Quran 973O you who believe Take not the Jews and Christians for your friends and protectors they are but friends and protectors to each other. And he amongst you that turns to them (for friendship) is of them. Verily Allah guides not a people unjust. Quran 551And fight them until theres no f itnah (polytheism) and religion is wholly for Allah. Quran 839However, the interpretation of Al-Qaeda and the Taliban has been condemned by influential group of Pakistani scholars and religious leaders, who declared that suicide attacks and beheadings as un-Islamic in a unanimous resolution. Marmaduke Pickthall, a Western convert to Islam and an Islamic scholar notes that Nowhere does the Quran approve a spirit of penalize and situates verse 2194 in the context of a defensive war. Ibn Kathir verbalise that the Quran clearly commands believers to prefer forgiveness over retaliation wheresoever possible.Michael Sells and Jane I. Smith (a Professor of Islamic Studies) write that barring some extremists like Al-Qaeda, most Muslims do not interpret Quranic verses as promoting warfare and that the phenomenon of radical interpretation of scripture by extremist groups is not unique to Islam. According to Sells, Most Muslims no more expect to apply the verses at issue to their contemporary non-Muslim friends and nickerbors than most Christians and Jews consider themselves commanded by God, like the Biblical Joshua, to abrogate the infidels.10Root Cause of TerrorismThe Worldview of the Fundamentalist. It is obvious to mention that Islamic fundamentalism is caused by the actions of the fundamentalist. What we can ask ourselves is what drives these individuals to advocate fundamentalism? Several scholars have proposed that fundamentalists adopt a literal teaching of the Quran. Consider the following verses-And kill them wherever you find them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out. And Al-Fitnah is worst than killing. And fight not with them at Al-Masjid-al-Haram (the sanctuary at Makkah) unless they (first) fight you there. But if they attack you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the unbelievers (Surah Al-Baqarah).If one takes a literal reading of the above passage, then it is quite obvious that Muslims should kill non-Muslims where and when ever the former thinks that they are in a position to do so. Take for example Palestinians. Palestinians have been resettled to accommodate for the state of Israel, consequently displacing the former from their own native land in the process. When seen within the light of the above verses, the perceived injustice seeed by the Palestinians would mean that Palestinians have every right to oppose the Israelis as well as their American benefactors. This is if a literal reading of the above verses is taken devoid of the context and historic circumstances that gave rise to such verses in the first place.11Islams Identity Crisis in Confronting Modernity. The historical inevitability and pain of innovation to modernization/capitalism has been met with resistance and conservative religious leaders sees such forms as imperialism, colonialism, and the spread of neoliberal ideology. As conservative religious leaders struggled to deal with the advent of modernity, Islamic modernizers were mor e open. Indeed, these Islamic modernizers worked with secular nationalists and were bring out able to cope with modernity, using European models of socialism and capitalism for nation building and national development (Hossein-Zadeh, 2005). However, when socialism and capitalism failed to deliver for example, instances of meagreness were rife people were disaffect from the system they were in materialism and depravation prevailed in the capitalist system the disappointed masses of the Muslim world turned to the more radical message of Islam as Muslims especially those alienated and disaffected by socialist and capitalists models looked for an Islamic Alternative. This yearning signalled a desire to return to the state of Islam during its Golden Age. Conservative religious leaders thereby became the sources of mobilization and self-respect as the disappointed masses sought to return to the Golden Age (Hossein-Zadeh, 2005).12Socio-Economic-Political Factors. Islam is not a monolit hic entity how Muslim states/Muslims tinct to the non-Muslim other depends a lot on their socio-economic-political factors. For example, poverty and undemocratic regimes are significant factors that can append to Islamic militancy. In Aceh (Indonesia) and Mindanao (Philippines), marginalized Muslim communities suffer acute deprivation and alienation vis-vis the post-colonial state dominated by the ethnic and religious minority (Rahim, 2003). Additionally, given the lack of democratic mechanisms in these regions, there are no means for legitimate and sufficient political mental representation thereby making Islamists act subversively. Undemocratic and draconian measures adopted by oppressive regimes to contain the radical Islamists will also exacerbate the threat sort of than effectively reducing it. Instances of poverty as well as undemocratic regimes and draconian legislation among many other factors can contribute to the conditions fuelling Islamic Militancy.13American Foreign Policy. American foreign policy is also a significant variable in the surge of Islamic Militancy. many a(prenominal) argue that Islam is a religion of peace Islamic terrorism, however, is a increase and response to American foreign policy. This sentiment is reflected upon Americas unconditional support for Israel in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict the ubiquity of American troops in the Gulf historical legacy of European colonialism and terrorist attacks are a cumulative process of humiliate Arabs (for example, displacing Palestinians in their homelands the Abu Ghraib Prison scandal torture techniques used by the provide administration). The rise of non-state actors such as Osama Bin Laden represents the Muslim and Arab worlds anger against American hegemony or simply arrogance/hubris (the so called Liberation Theology). Moreover, the three-fold standards as exercised by the Americans in regards to supporting oppressive regimes so as to secure regional cooperation in the war against terrorism is seen as having conceal intent that the war against terrorism could be a war against Islam. American, it has been argued, should look into the causes and conditions that fuel Islamic rage that is, by reflecting upon its own foreign policies rather than blaming the other for the calamities that had happened thus far.14 dose Trafficking. Drug trade entered the murky moving picture of terrorism, in a big way, in Afghanistan during the Taliban operations using Afghanistan Pak axis. Initially, they justify the use of dose business as it was for a sacred cause and even convinced the clergy. However, gradually it became a part and parcel of their activities and drug mafias became big players in the venture and terrorist became synonymous of drug trafficker. Equally, the wide net income created by the drug mafia was exploited by the terrorist outfits for their operations. As big money was involved politicians in Afghanistan and Pakistan were easily drawn into vicio us circle. Drug trafficking provided the illegitimate money to fuel the Holy War Jihad across the globe.ConclusionConceivably, future reforms in Islam is more vital than the ideology argue over the character of Islamic past. Kepel in 2002 suggested that Islamist terrorism does not, nor can it promote its intended goals and has become consumed with a fantasy of a world-wide triumph of radical Islam. Understanding the reasons for rise in fundamentalism in Islam and factors contributing to global terrorism, it is neigh important to take concrete measures against terrorism, else, we are likely to inherit a world without peace to the coming generations.Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued. 33.29. Quran

Sex, Drugs, Disasters, and the Extinction of Dinosaurs by Stephen Jay G

Sex, Drugs, Disasters, and the Extinction of Dinosaurs is pen by Stephen Jay Gould, professor of geology and zoology at Harvard. This essay is one of more than a hundred articles on evolution, zoology, and paleontology published by Gould in national magazines and journals. It tells about scientific proposals for the extinction of dinosaurs a confusing just an exciting problem that humanity tries to solve. By analyzing and describing each of the claims for the reptiles demise sex, drugs, and disasters Gould differentiates disobedient science from slap-up science and explains what makes some theories silly speculations, while the other, a testable hypothesis. Any hypothesis, Gould says, begins with the collection of facts. In this early stage of a possible action development bad science leads nowhere, since it contains either little or contradicting evidence. On the other hand, Gould suggests, testable proposals are accepted temporarily, furthermore, new collected facts confirm a hypothesis. That is how good science works. It is self-correcting and self-developing with the flow of time new information improves a good theory and makes it more precise. Finally, good hypotheses create logical relations to other subjects and contribute to their expansion.The disaster theory, Gould claims, is an example of good science. It has testable evidence and has an allude on studies in other fields of science, it develops further and explains why the extinction of dinosaurs occurred simultaneously with other events. This theory suggests that a large comet hit the flat coat sixty five million years ago, causing the cloud of frame to rise into the sky and to block sunlight. As a result, world temperatures went tidy sum significantly, the ice age bega... ...r optimum temperatures, hot climate caused the dinosaurs to heat up beyond their optimum. However, the heat didnt kill them, but sterilized the males, because their testes functioned at certain temperatures . Gould argues that this theory is untestable, and the experiments with the influence of extreme temperatures on modern alligators do not necessarily explain the extinction of dinosaurs. Furthermore, many questions are not answered because of the absence of evidence. Gould states that this theory is another example of bad science.Sex, drugs, and disasters are two popular topics that grab public attention and scientific theories of the extinction of dinosaurs. patch sex and drug hypotheses represent silly speculations, the disaster claim is good science it provides testable evidence, has an impact on other scientific fields, and generates continuous research.

Factors Contributing to the Rebellion of Americans in 1776 :: Revolutionary War British Puritans History Essays

Factors Contributing to the Rebellion of Americans in 1776 suppose you are an American Colonists just making ends meet as a merchant. There has recently been a war between the French and the British. During the war, you go along to trade with the enemy and smuggle goods, while your colonial assembly repeatedly refused to provide military officials with men and supplies. The war eventually ends, leaving the British with debt and expensive responsibilities to administer newly acquired territory in trade union America, they current from the French. Believing that the Navigation practises should be enforced strictly and that the lightly taxed colonists should suffer a share of the empires defense costs, Parliament in March 1765 passes the shape Act to raise revenue. Next thing you know Parliament imposes another(prenominal) act on the colonies, the Mutiny Act, stating that the colonists must house and maintain the British troops. Ok, you are a bit mad, but it is maintainable. Out of the blue, you hear just ab issue a shooting in Boston, where five people were shoot by the British troops, there is a lot of propaganda surrounding. Your neighbors, along with yourself are raging by what you hear. Following this incident there is much propaganda in pamphlets passed out concerning colonial religion and political ideas. These things and others happened to the colonists and impart enthralled and provoked them to guerrilla and in effect brought about the American Revolution. From the information I birth gathered in class and from my own personal reading, I make up concurred that Parliament taxation was the parent irritation to the other annoyances. The Seven Years war Showed the British officials that the Americans had no regard for the Navigation Acts and imperial authority. Example of this were colonial merchants continuing to trade with the enemy and smuggle goods, while colonial assemblies repeatedly refused to provide military officials with men a nd supplies. The war left Great Britain with a considerable debt and expensive responsibilities to administer newly acquired territory in North America. As a result, Parliament in March 1765 passed the Stamp Act to raise revenue. This act required the colonists to purchase and use specially stamped melodic theme for all official documents, deeds, mortgages, newspapers, and pamphlets. The Stamp Act provoked opposition among the colonists, who motto this as a violation of their pay offs. To the colonists, the Stamp Act violated the right of English subjects not to be taxed without representation it also weakened the emancipation of their colonial assemblies.

The Australian Legend and Feminism :: essays research papers fc

The Australian Legend And FeminismUntil recent long time it has been believed that there argon two call d have gotes, existence male and female, and with these there ar two genders, with these being masculinity and feminity. It may also be argued that sex is biology determined where as gender is socially and culturally constructed as studies of societies, both present and past, have shown that there is no relationship betwixt social roles and biological sex (Abercrombie, Hill & Turner, 2000). With the introduction of run modernist feminist theories we have begun to question whether or not there are only two genders and how to classify transgender (Flax, 1990).It can be argued that masculinity has socially and culturally been constructed as dominant within the public world. In westbound countries, such as Australia, it is upon men that autonomy, control over the world and bidding of others (Porter, 1998, p. 27) has been placed. Parsons (Porter, 1998) suggested five alternat ive sets of positioned values which are structured as being either expressive or implemental. Parsons (Porter, 1998) was of the belief that men somatic the instrumental values of affective neutrality (capable of unemotional and impersonal interaction), self-orientation (primary pursuit of own interests), universalism (making objective evaluations when interacting with others), achievement (ability to achieve set goals and related status) and specificity (interacting or working(a) within a specific role). Parsons theorized that these five instrumental values were associated with horse opera advanced societies (Porter, 1998).In Australia, women and children are seen to be subservient to the male superiority. Parsons (Porter, 1998) believed that women embodied the expressive values of affectivity (highly emotional), collective orientation (putting others interests before your own), particularism (responding oppositely towards different people), ascription (having status ascribed r egardless of intrinsic qualities), and diffuseness (role covers a considerable range of interests and is non-specific). To Parsons these roles were seen to belong to primitive society and in modern times were to be associated with women and private life (Porter, 1998).These roles have been repayd through fashionable media, for example by the bible which is the worlds best selling and most distributed keep back (Guinness World Records). Within the bible the word "man" may be build 5,335 times in 4,536 verses whilst woman may be found 379 times in 347 verses (Christ Unlimited Ministries, n.d.). Passages of the bible may also reinforce the notion of male superiority for example in Genesis 126-28 (Christ Unlimited Ministries, n.d.) which tells of god creating Adam in his own image and past creating for Adam a helper, Eve, whom God calls Woman as she is created from the rib of man.

Sparta Vs Athens :: essays papers

Sparta Vs A consequentlysIn Ancient Greece there were devil different major manakins of govern handst,Oligarchy and Democracy. The two city-states that best represent each song of government were Sparta (oligarchy) and Athens (democracy). Thedemocratic government in Athens, though de cently equal, ordinary and fairlyadvanced for its sequence, did not meet the needs of the Greeks. During atime of many military battles Athens decided to worry more well-nigh comfortand culture. It is the oligarchy in Sparta that put a war-like attitudeas its for the first time priority and best met the needs of Ancient Greece. The Athenian democratic government, which may have given the citizens inGreece more freedom, was not the best form of government at the time. Thedemocracy in Athens cannot really be called a true democracy since therewere several flaws in the governme nt and the path it worked. Only ten percent of the total population of Athens in reality had voting rights and all of these citizens were upper class men who were over cardinal years old. Women, no matter what the class or age, were given no freedom at all. They were first owned by their fathers and then were passed from them totheir husbands who then gave them nothing more than the responsibilitiesof managing the household and educating the children. During a meeting ofthe forum, a indemnity could be adopted and formed into a law but at once themeeting of the assembly ended, the enforcement of that law was left in thehands of slew who may not agree with that specific law. Also, a linguistic rule ofthe Assembly said that if a certa in speaker became too powerful, hecould be expelled from the country if given a majority vote by theAssembly. This rule could easily be abused and really infringed on thefreedom of terminology that most democracies have. The Assembly was made up offive hundred men who were chosen from a list of those who were eligible toserve on the council. Since most of the population was of a lowereconomic class, the time taken out-of-door from their normal work by serving onthe Assembly displace their earning potential , causing their already poorsituation to worsen. Life may have been sophisticated and graceful inAthens but the Athenians were frequently mocked by opposing countries and othercity-states for having no bravery, patriotism or courage. This was shownby the repeated attacks on Athens. If the Athenians had a more war-like

Importance of Art in Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre Essay -- Jane Eyre E

Importance of Art in Jane Eyre It is said that art is handle a mirror to the soul, a way to see what the artist is printing deep down in their heart. It is as if their most personal thoughts and ideas ar reflected in their work, either consciously or unconsciously. Charlotte Bront utilizes this fact in her imaginativeness and portrait of Jane Eyre. Color and vivid description play a spanking role explaining the process of randy and physical maturation throughout the novel, from early Janes recollection of the red room in Gateshead to her final reminiscence of Ferndeans dreary facade. There is no better example of this process than Janes own esthetical abilities as they pass off through life. To best examine and explore the progress of Janes emotional and temperamental development, it is important to construct a frame of reference, to set about a base from which to work towards her final character. Her childhood home, Gateshead provides the groundwork of her emo tional/character being, which at the beginning of the story is an isolated creature, devoid of kind and nurturing contact and shunned by humanity. Two excerpts from her stay at Gateshead illustrate this fact, her rendering of Bewicks History of British Birds, and her punishment for striking Master John, the stay in the red room of Gateshead. In the opening scene, Jane is found perusing a copy of Bewicks History of British Birds, concentrating on the descriptions of the certain landscapes in which nearly of the birds live. Her words paint a mental picture, one that re prefaces her childhood, Of these death-white realms I organise an idea of my o... ...ituality from Helen Burns is by no means meaningless, and it lacks depth. To present another facet into the story, imagery reflects the conditions of Janes life, conferring a tangible and viable dismission for her imagination, and a vehicle to her soul. As her life develops, so does her ability, and the enjoyment she rece ives from this talent. Truly, Jane Eyre would politic be a great novel in the absence of the painting, but it would make it that much harder to touch the fabric of its characters being. Bibliography Bront, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Boston Bedford Books of St. Martins Press, 1996. Endnotes 1) Charlotte Bront, Jane Eyre (Boston Bedford Books of St. Martins Press, 1996), p. 21. 2) Bront, p. 131. 3) Bront, p.132. 4) Bront, p. 233.

The Death Penalty: Justifiable Essay -- essays research papers

The Death Penalty justifiable-Preface Let it be noned now that this speech is very opinionated.I strongly suppose that the Death Penalty is a form of penalisation to be lend oneselfd when needed. Which opens up the question, when should it be used? That maybe the breaking point in a lot of arguments, deciding when to use the deathpenalty is a very touchy subject. I believe that precisely murderers deserve thedeath penalty, but I do non believe that all murderers should receive it aspunishment. In cases where someone was killed in self defense, the murderershould not receive the death penalty. But when someone is killed in cold bloodthen there should be a consideration. Again, not all cold blooded murderersshould receive it. Premeditated and sometimes on the spot murders are as well ascandidates, but that depends on how the victim was hardened before the murder.Was he/she abused or tormented in a severe way? Or was the victim raped? I wouldalso take into account, the number of people killed by the murderer. Those arenot the only things to take into account, but I will stop here.It was August 3, the stratum was 1986. A man named Esquel Banda had justraped, stabbed and strangled a 74 division old widow by the name of Merle Laird inher let house. Banda then sucked the blood from the womans mouth.Does that describe a kind, gentle man, who is not a threat to society? Ama...

The Business Life Of Ancient Athens :: essays research papers

The patronage Life of past capital of GreeceThe Business Life of superannuated Athens is an informative intelligence aboutdifferent aspects of Ancient businesses and Ancient shipway of dealing with money.This apply first starts out by explaining the countrified aspects of AncientAthens. Agriculture was non well for Athens, so they had to dish out a lot. It is save as premature as the 6th century BC that whit was a very big part of anaverage Athenians diet. Therefore practically grain trade was necessary becauseGreece land was very bad for agricultural purposes. Athens had enceinteindustri eachy and commercially within time, and this was withal a problemoverpopulation. Also, galore(postnominal) another(prenominal) Spartan tribes over and over attacked Greece anddestroyed any crops that might turn over in the soil. Peasants were also sent towork at farms but they anomic care in their farms and assemble it better to do it inthe city, life-time off small amounts o f money that came from doing state services.During this time, legion(predicate) sight erudite ways of math because they indispensable to knowhow overmuch grain is needed per person. Although these calculations are nottotally accurate, they are a start in banking and maybe even other ways ofmathematics. The Peloponnesian War also occurred- leaving Greece(Attica) withnothing. Attica was forced by famine to go under Peloponnesian rule. By now,trade had come in an uproar. many an(prenominal) people had found it easy to trade by sea. Somany merchants with not luxuriant money would borrow money from rich people andthen acquire cargo space on a ship. In most cases the merchant went on the ship toget the untroubleds to merchandise. Then on returning, the merchant would sell the goods,and then pay off the lender, with a 22.5 part interest rate. In many cases,problems occurred, sometimes a merchant returned late, could not pay all of themoney back, or something or other. Therefore the psyche of a confirming wasinvented. Also, courts were established to rule these sorts of fights amongstthe people. These courts werent used in the wintertime because of stormy hold upand so not to interrupt commercial business. Courts were undeniable to solve acase within 30 days, this procedure nevertheless applies to cases where and actual gooddocumented agreement was made between the lender and the merchant. Manymerchants did not return, therefore the collateral was the lenders to keep.But often the merchant didnt have anything good to start with so many lenderslost money.Next, the harbor talked about Banking and Bankers. first banking datesback all the way to Sumer and Akkad where many specialize in deliberation thingsThe Business Life Of Ancient Athens essays research papers The Business Life of Ancient AthensThe Business Life of Ancient Athens is an informative book aboutdifferent aspects of Ancient businesses and Ancient ways of dealing with money.This book first starts out by explaining the agricultural aspects of AncientAthens. Agriculture was not well for Athens, so they had to trade a lot. It isrecorded as early as the 6th century BC that grain was a very big part of anaverage Athenians diet. Therefore much grain trade was necessary becauseGreece land was very bad for agricultural purposes. Athens had grownindustrially and commercially within time, and this was also a problemoverpopulation. Also, many Spartan tribes over and over attacked Greece anddestroyed any crops that might grow in the soil. Peasants were also sent towork at farms but they lost care in their farms and found it better to live inthe city, living off small amounts of money that came from doing state services.During this time, many people learned ways of math because they needed to knowhow much grain is needed per person. Although these calculations are nottotally accurate, they are a start in banking and maybe even other ways ofmathematics. The Peloponnesian War also occurred- leaving Greece(Attica) withnothing. Attica was forced by famine to go under Peloponnesian rule. By now,trade had come in an uproar. Many people had found it easy to trade by sea. Somany merchants with not enough money would borrow money from rich people andthen buy cargo space on a ship. In most cases the merchant went on the ship toget the goods to sell. Then on returning, the merchant would sell the goods,and then pay off the lender, with a 22.5 percent interest rate. In many cases,problems occurred, sometimes a merchant returned late, could not pay all of themoney back, or something or other. Therefore the idea of a collateral wasinvented. Also, courts were established to rule these sorts of fights amongstthe people. These courts werent used in the winter because of stormy weatherand so not to interrupt commercial business. Courts were required to solve acase within 30 days, this procedure only applies to cases where and actual legaldocumented agreement was made be tween the lender and the merchant. Manymerchants did not return, therefore the collateral was the lenders to keep.But often the merchant didnt have anything good to start with so many lenderslost money.Next, the book talked about Banking and Bankers. Early banking datesback all the way to Sumer and Akkad where many specialized in weighing things