Hauntington Disease

Huntington disease Name Institute Huntington Disease Introduction Shortage of information about Huntington disease (HD) and its non-clinical management inveigled me into a quest for journal articles about this comparatively rare illness. Having pored over scores of Journal of Clinical Nursing Issues, I stumbled across the article entitled â€Å"Exploring supportive care for individuals affected by Huntington disease and their family caregivers in a community setting†.It immediately arrested my attention, as it touched upon the possible implications of HD for the affected persons, their family members (including those, who could inherit the illness genetically) and caregivers. This article is a collaborative work of the three authors from the University of Plymouth, namely Beverley Soltysiak, Penny Gardiner and Heather Skirton. It was published first on 10 July, 2008. Summary of the articleAccording to McDonald (2003), Huntington disease, formerly known as Huntington’s c horea, is a chronic neurodegenerative condition caused by a genetic mutation in the Huntingtin gene, situated on chromosome 4†. The article traverses implications and supportive care approaches to the individuals, who suffer from Huntington disease. Authors argue that different approaches should be applied to various age categories of the affected. The difference in symptoms may be subtle at first glance, but younger individuals, affected by the long-term conditions, find facilities for their senior counterparts unsuitable.Important role in this regard belongs to the psychological aspects of the disease. People struck by HD tend to lead sedentary and recluse life. Huntington disease affects badly humans’ perception and cognition, renders their speech unintelligible, and makes them helpless to some extent in general. The far-reaching implications include unsteady gait and severe depressions, which sometimes result in strangers mistaking persons with HD for inebriates or drug abusers. It takes protracted periods of time and frenzied efforts of caregivers to jolt people ffected by Huntington disease out of the so-called â€Å"public alienation†. Authors argue that Huntington disease is debilitating in terms of its impact on the person’s physical condition, but they conclude that it is devouring person’s psychological strength even more eagerly. Sporadic outdoors activities lead to the development of the trait of standoffishness, which, in its turn, hinders the process of treatment. This illness is incurable, while affected people usually live no more than 30 years after the emergence of the first symptoms.However, multifarious therapies and techniques aimed at helping patients to cope with the disease are employed (physiotherapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy). A multidisciplinary approach is utilized to make sure that complex care needs are met. Research focuses in part on interviewing the afflicted people in order to und erstand better how to help them to deal with the problems they face every day (anxiety disorders, animosity, petulance, apathy, and obsession). Depending on their willingness to cooperate, separate persons were interviewed individually or in groups.It was found that participants with cognitive deficits or/and psychic disorders did not feel comfortable to communicate with impaired colleagues in groups, and consequently opted for individual interview or shunned it at all. The same specialists facilitated both group and individual interviews. â€Å"Data analysis was undertaken using inductive coding technique† (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Interviewers point out that it was a daunting task for them to conduct the research, because cognitive problems of people with Huntington disease barred interviewers from following their train of thought.The heed was paid to the participants’ standpoint on the following themes: 1) Deciding whether to have genetic test; 2) Being given the le thal diagnosis; 3) Disclosure of information about the participant’s being diagnosed with HD; 4) Entering into serious relationship and having a child; 5) Making decisions about how to let children know of the genetic mutation; 6) Observing a family member suffer and wither from HD. Following the diagnosis of one individual, other family members are haunted by or preoccupied with the fear of having genetic mutation.Some people prefer being oblivious to this possibility, while others, prompted by the desire to obtain confidence in future, eagerly agree to undergo a genetic test. In any event, propitious outcome of a genetic test has not proved to be a precondition for sunny disposition. It failed to provide them with a necessary degree of certainty, as those, who turned out to be healthy, started to monitor themselves vigilantly for the possible appearance of symptoms. Evaluation This article provides a comprehensive study of the implications of HD and the means to address the challenges that these implications entail.The main emphasis is placed on those with HD; though, a good amount of attention is also paid to their family members, who are prone to inherit the genetic mutation, and caregivers. Bearing in mind brevity of this research and overall paucity of research into non-clinical management of HD, it would not be wise to grumble about certain details that authors failed to examine. However, I see it fit to note that more approaches of incorporating the afflicted people into the social milieu should have been developed, or at least, more thorough analysis of those listed should have been provided.In terms of interest, I would give this article eight points out of ten. On the plus side, it is laced with excerpts from the interviews, which enable the readers to take a closer look at the problem. Moreover, authors managed to construe the material without abusing the buzzwords. This makes the article flow easily and renders it readable to a broad audien ce. Given the scarcity of knowledge about this area of health assessment, there are no slightest doubts that further research into this area should be carried out. Many gaps still are due to be filled. Some of the possible directions of research were mentioned above.The information highlighted in this article would be of an utmost importance to the family members of people with HD and those, who take care of these people. Hospital staff could also defer to some advice put forward by Soltysiak et al. This article constitutes a precious groundwork for the researchers, who are interested in this particular area. Conclusion People affected by Huntington disease have to address a series of challenges in everyday life. It should be noted that neither these very people, nor their relatives, lead ordinary life after a family member has een diagnosed with HD. Huntington disease seriously undermines person’s physical and psychological well-being, with psychological effects having far g reater scopes. Reluctance of the affected persons to engage in social activities exacerbated by their distorted vision of the world hampers the process of treatment. There is no efficient treatment at all; though, a number of therapies were developed to extenuate the implications. The problem is that at the same time as people with HD need outdoors activities to muster stamina, they also need to muster stamina to go outdoors.By and large, individuals prone to HD feel frustrated at the lack of information about HD held by health professors. References MacDonald, M. E. , Gines, S. , Gusella, J. F. & Wheeler, V. C. (2003). Huntington’s disease. Neuromolecular Medicine, 4. Miles, M. , Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis – an expanded sourcebook. (2nded. ). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Soltysiak, B. , Gardiner, P. , Skirton, H. (2008). Exploring supportive care for individuals affected by Huntington disease and their family caregivers in a community sett ing. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17, 7b, 226-234.

Women’s Rights to Abortion

The dictionary defines abortion as :The termination of pregnancy and expulsion of an embryo or of a fetus that is incapable of survival . This simply means, inducing birth to kill the fetus or baby before it is carried to full term . The most popular procedure involved in abortions is the vacuum aspiration which is done during the first trimester (three months or less since the women has become pregnant). A tube is simply inserted through the cervix and the contents of the uterus are vacuumed out. The most commonly used type of second trimester abortion is called dilation and evacuation. Since the fetus has bones, bulk and can move, second trimester is not as simple. When as much of the fetus and placenta are vacuumed out then tweezers are used to remove larger parts. The controversy of abortion has become one of the most divisive an irrationally controversial issues of our times turned into a legal and political power struggle with no permanent resolution in sight . I am pro-choice! For years it has been said that abortion should not be legal . Today it is a big issue , many people feel aborting an unwanted child should be against the law , As I see it a woman’s body is her own to do whatever she wants . Approximately one to three million abortions are done each year. Women get abortions for many reason; such as rape , teen pregnancy and health reasons . Rape is one of the many reasons that cause woman to choose to end their pregnancies. Many of them feel guilty about ending a life, but they know deep down how badly they would treat the child , they hate their rapist, so in turn would hate the child. Pro-life activists say that abortion is murder and is in defiance of God. Would God want a Mother to hate her child or do her child harm? They would also question whether this child would be like it’s father (a rapist ). Young woman between 15 and 18 account for atleast 5 million abortions every year . One of every 5 pregnancies happen to teenage girls, in these situations some teenagers no they are not able to take care of these children for they are not mature enough for this awesome responsibility . In many cases the child would have no one to rely on but a single mother with no schooling and maybe a non-supportive family . The child would have a miserable upbringing left vulnerable also a baby born to a teenage mother is at a risk of suffering more health issues than a baby born to an older mom. Teenage mothers are more likely to get addicted to drinking, smoking and drugs due to the post pregnancy stress. †¢Teen mothers also gain very less weight during pregnancy and are also at a higher risk for premature birth, which can also affect in low birth weight of the baby. †¢Babies who are born with a low birth weight suffer from serious health problems like underdeveloped organs, infant mor tality, stomach complications, loss of vision in one or both eyes, respiratory complications and other lung problems. †¢Most babies of teenage moms are likely to die early than babies of women in their twenties and thirties. Teenage parents often face some huge economic hardships. Teen mothers are forced to give up education and drop out of school, less than 20% of teenage mothers earn a high school diploma. †¢It's very difficult for a teenage mother and father to support themselves and their baby. As their education is cut short, it's very difficult for teenage parents to find a decent job. †¢With education cut short, they are left with very little employment opportunities and they face a lot of hardship in building a secured future for themselves and their kid. †¢Over 85% of teen parents rely on welfare for financial support at some point in their lives. With the little income of both parents, it's very difficult to provide the baby with the required nutrition and care. After taking into consideration all of the hardships that will be faced abortion becomes a reality, and the teen mom realizes that pregnancy is not just about life in the womb, life comes with the responsibility of provid ing the child all the rights and comforts that they are entitle to. Another reason women seek abortion is Incest, why should a woman bring a child in the world that was conceive with a family member usually against her will. In Bioethicist Andrew Varga’s article it is argued that in this tragic case the great value of the mental health of a woman who becomes pregnant as a result of incest can best be safe-guarded by abortion. It is also said that a pregnancy caused by incest is the result of a grave injustice and that the victim should not be obliged to carry the fetus to viability. This would keep reminding her for nine months of the act committed against her and would just increase her mental anguish. It is reasoned that the value of the woman's mental health is greater than the value of the fetus. In addition, it is maintained that the fetus is an aggressor against the woman's integrity and personal life; it is only just and morally defensible to repel an aggressor even by killing him if that is the only way to defend personal and human values. It is concluded, then, that abortion is justified in this case. Another reason women seek abortions is Incest, why should a woman bring a child in the world that was conceive with a family member. It is argued that in this tragic case the great value of the mental health of a woman who becomes pregnant as a result of incest can best be safe-guarded by abortion. It is also said that a pregnancy caused by incest is the result of a grave injustice and that the victim should not be obliged to carry the fetus to viability. This would keep reminding her for nine months of the act committed against her and would just increase her mental anguish. It is reasoned that the value of the woman's mental health is greater than the value of the fetus. In addition, it is maintained that the fetus is an aggressor against the woman's integrity and personal life; it is only just and morally defensible to repel an aggressor even by killing him if that is the only way to defend personal and human values. It is concluded, then, that abortion is justified in this case. Pro- life activist have bomb abortion clinics, On January 29, 1998 a nail-studded bomb killed a guard and seriously injured a nurse at an abortion clinic in Birmingham, Alabama. October 23, 1998: Dr. Barnett Slepian was shot to death at his home in Amherst, New York. His was the last in a series of similar shootings against providers in Canada and northern New York state which were all likely committed by James Kopp. Kopp was convicted of Dr. Slepian's murder after finally being apprehended in France in 2001. May 31, 2009: Dr. George Tiller was shot and killed by Scott Roeder as Tiller served as an usher at church in Wichita, Kansas. Is taking a life of a full functioning human being worth spending life in prison for an unborn fetus. In conclusion for any pregnant woman making a decision to abort her unborn child is painful and ruthless, but under certain situations a woman should be able to terminate her pregnancy by ab ortion.

Changing the Minimun Legal Drinking Age in the United States Essay

Over the past twenty years the minimum legal drinking age has been twenty-one in all US states, but that has not stopped citizens of the United Sates from attempting to lower the age. Following the end of prohibition in the United Sates during the Great Depression, all states agreed on a set of twenty-one to be the legal drinking age. For almost forty years there was no change in the drinking age until a decrease in the age for voting occurred. This led to the gradual decrease of the minimum legal drinking age to somewhere between the ages of eighteen and twenty among twenty-one states. Recent data collected by Henry Wechsler and Toben F. Nelson, both of which obtain either a PhD/ScD, show that over many efforts from legislation have been presented with bills that argue to lower the minimum age, but none have been passed (986). This subject has and always will be a well discussed issue among Americans, youth, and adults until they are satisfied with the outcome. Legislation should lo wer the minimum legal drinking age to eighteen in the United States due to the fact that it should be consistent with all other legal rights that one acquires at age eighteen. As supporters of lowering the minimum legal drinking age argue that the age of drinking should be persistent with other legal rights such as voting, buying tobacco products, and serving their country. Statistics say the youth of today have had their first taste of alcohol by the time they are twenty-one, so that can only mean that they have participated in underage drinking (Barnett 8). This is considered breaking the law and one would go to jail if reported or if discovered by authorities unless there was an exception. That brings me to the amount of exceptions to the minimum legal drinking age in the United States. Over eight different exceptions are active in the States this year that excuse the act of underage drinking such as religious purposes, medical purposes, educational purposes, and with parental consent (40 States 468). These exceptions let anyone under parental consent or on private property legally drink without questioning them. Other people may see these exceptions as a sufficient way to only let minors drink under the careful eye of adults, but these adults that are supposed to be carefully watching these minors could easily slip up. I believe that the exceptions of minors drinking on private property with or without parental consent should not be excused. Does drinking at home mean you are not able to climb into a car and drive under the influence? These exceptions also lead to the thought of the Zero Tolerance Law not being enforced vigorously which leads to teenagers taking the Law as a joke. Many people that oppose the lowering of the minimum legal drinking age do not realize the effectiveness of the age being lowered to eighteen. These viewers see the youth as forever irresponsible and should not be trusted with anything. If the youth was taught to drink in moderation and not binge drink, changing the minimum legal drinking age would not be so risky. Barnett, a professor at Brown University Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, suggests that if the youth is aware of the risks of alcohol they may drink with more caution (8). Prohibiting teens from drinking in public location such as bars, restaurants, and clubs has forced them to drink in unsupervised places. Fraternity/sorority houses, friend’s houses, and other secret locations are places that teens turn to to be able to drink without getting in trouble. If the drinking age was lowered then teens would be allowed to drink in healthy and supervised environments that in turn teach them to be cautious of the am ount of alcohol obtained. When the age eighteen comes along it is assumed to be the year of adulthood which means taking on many responsibilities such as the right to vote, getting married, and joining the military. Joining the military includes taking the risk of losing your life. I believe making the decision to fight for your country entitles you to the right of being able to make any life decision on your own, even the decision about alcohol consumption. If one is charged with a crime then the eighteen year old is no longer tried in juvenile court; he is tried as an adult. In reality, an eighteen, nineteen, and twenty year old can do just about everything that a twenty-one year old can do, except legally consume alcohol. Who is to say that en eighteen, nineteen, or twenty-year old is not mature enough to properly consume alcohol? Previous research suggests that when there is a more strenuous alcohol policy there will be lower alcohol abuse and consumption among teens (Grube, Kypri, and Paschall 1850). This actually causes teens to feel the need to rebel instead of the thought of teens abusing the privilege. This is a rather immature personality trait to have as a teenager, but there might actually be a reduction in drinking because teens are no longer being rebellious and breaking the law. The whole point of â€Å"becoming an adult† is to give them the ability to take responsibility for their own actions, so why should we not let them? In the United Sates, statistics show that the consumption of alcohol by minors has decreased in the last twenty years, but the consumption of alcohol by adults ages twenty-one through twenty-four have increased (Wechsler and Nelson 987). Waiting until you are twenty-one to legally drink is causing adults to binge drink without thinking of the consequences. With decreasing the minimum legal drinking age in the United States, adults (age eighteen) will be able to pace themselves and learn at a younger age the risks of drinking uncontrollably. By the time that age twenty-one rolls around for an adult, the dangers of binge drinking may have already harmed them. It is all about learning early and discovering the consequences, dangers, and limits to drinking so that bad habits will not be formed during later adulthood years. Henry Wechsler and Toben F. Nelson state that seventy-nine studies were conducted to relate the drinking age and traffic fatalities (988). Although, none of the studies conducted related fewer crashes with a lower minimum drinking age, but related a higher drinking age with fewer traffic fatalities, â€Å"the minimum legal drinking age does not save lives† (Wechsler and Toben 988). The choice to save lives relies on the person being held accountable. Underage drinking going on at a house party has more guests committing the crime of drunk driving rather than going out to the bar to have a drink. These eighteen year old adults have to turn to secretly drinking and risking getting arrested because they have not reached the age of twenty-one yet. If an eighteen year old was able to go out with his family to a restaurant and consume alcohol, then he would not be committing two crimes-underage drinking and drinking while driving. I do not believe that being able to legally drink and traffic fatalities correspond any more than illegal drinking and traffic fatalities because anyone, no matter the age, can get into a car under the influence without thinking twice. The minimum legal drinking age is just another cause for breaking the law and possibly putting someone’s life in danger besides your own. Being at the age of eighteen one is not permitted to legally purchase alcohol and according to Wechsler and Nelson’s article in American Journal, evidence supports that by lowering the minimum legal drinking age there will be an increase in the consumption of alcohol (990). Few would say that giving eighteen year olds the ability to purchase alcohol will lead to the increase in drinking which in turn would cause danger and harm to others. If that was to be true, then would there not be an increase in consumption at age twenty-one now? Should that cause for a raise in the legal drinking age? If one is able to purchase and consume alcohol that is their right. No one should be in control of someone else’s life or their life choices. Whatever the minimum legal drinking age may be, there will always be an increase in the purchase of alcohol because before that time they are unable to buy it. Just because there is an increase does not mean that there will be an increase in ha rm or negative consequences. In conclusion, many points of the support to keep the minimum legal drinking age of twenty-one are understandable, but I cannot agree with the overall argument. Adults, teens, youth, and seniors will drink at whatever age they may want to whether it is illegal or not. The minimum legal drinking age is one of the only things that adults at the age of eighteen are unable to do simply because they are seen as not mature enough to handle the responsibility. If one is capable of deciding who they want to lead our country, serve for our country, and get married and begin a life with another person, then I believe there should be no reason that they are not able to make responsible decisions about the consumption of alcohol. America can only protect the youth so much until they start to rebel and take things into their control. Work Cited Barnett, Nancy P. â€Å"The Minimum Drinking Age Debate.† Date: The Brown University Digest of Addiction Theory & Application 27.11 (2008): 8. Academic Search Complete. Web. 20 Nov. 2012. Print. Paschall, Mallie J., Joel W. Grude, and Kypros Kypri. â€Å"Alcohol Control Policies And Alcohol Consumption By Youth: A Multi-National Study.† Addiction 104.11 (2009): 1844-1855. Academic Search Complete. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. Print. ProCon.org. â€Å"40 States That Allow Underage (under 21) Alcohol Consumption.† DrinkingAge.ProCon.org. ProCon.org, 3 Aug. 2012. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. Saylor, Drew K. â€Å"Heavy Drinking On College Campuses: No Reason To Change Minimum Legal Drinking Age of 21.† Journal of American College Health 59.4 (2011): 330-333. Academic Search Complete. Web. 15 Nov 2012. Print. Wechsler, Henry, and Toben F. Nelson. â€Å"Will Increasing Alcohol Availablity By Lowering The Minimum Legal Drinking Age Decrease Drinking And Related Consequences Among Youths?† American Journal of Public Health 100.6 (2010): 986-992. Academic Search Complete. Web. 15 Nov 2012. Print.

Choose one Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Choose one - Term Paper Example The $ 16.6 billion deal ensured that AT&T and SBC became the largest telecom company in the nation. Although from the perspective of both the companies, this deal was most certainly revolutionary; from the perspective of the consumers, it might not have been such good news. As a matter of fact various customer advocacy groups filed petition for the cancelation of the deal as the advocacy groups believed that this deal was bad for customers and bad for business. Several customer advocacy groups such as The Utility Reform Network, Office of Ratepayer Advocates presented a market research report by an economist belonging to the California Institute of Technology. (Brown, 2009, p. 209). According to the advocacy groups the research report showed that the merger would affect various services and also customers. Such a deal would not only kill the competition in the market; but also would increase the whole sale prices by almost fifteen percent. This would lead to monopoly in the market as it would reduce market concentration and choice of the customers. A part from the telecommunication market the report also suggested that in Los Angles alone the choice of commercial buildings may go down by more than seventy percent as the newly merged company may end up controlling almost 80 percent of the buildings. A part from the rising wholesale prices the merger would also lead to a rise in the retail prices. The elimination of choices would increase the wholesale price almost by fifteen percent leading to the much higher retail prices for data and voice services used by the customers. Another major factor would be collusion not to compete. Verizon and SBC would continue to avoid competition due to the merger. This could be seen even in the cities where the businesses operate quite close to the distribution channels. One prime example could be LA. In LA the marketing channels of both Verizon and SBC over laps quite scarcely. Hence the customer groups advocated that after the merger the choices of the customers would go down, prices may go up as consumers would have very less bargaining power; add to that market concentration would also increase. The consumer groups believed that the last thing that the business and the customers need is monopoly in the market. The merger would ultimately lead to very little number of competitors (Burgemeister, 2003). From the information presented by the customer advocacy groups the impact of the merger between the two companies on the national telecommunication market can be analyzed by using the porter’s five force analysis (Churchill, 2009). The rivalry among the existing firms would be low as the merger would kill competition. This would severely impact the smaller firms. As a result the industry competition would be low. Due to the lack of competition the bargaining power of the buyers would be low as the buyers would have very little choices. As a result the company can increase the prices. The bargaining power of the suppliers would also be low. As there would be very less competition in the market, just like the customers the suppliers would also have a very little option resulting in lowered cost of raw materials. Threat of new entrants would be very low. The merger leading to monopoly may lead to a situation where, the merged company can achieve economies of scale and strong brand equity. This would most certainly acts as major barriers to entry to

Scholarly Journal Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Scholarly Journal Analysis - Essay Example Moreover, various primary and secondary data sources were utilized to evaluate and establish any potential link between the legalization of marijuana and the subsequent exhibited use, potential abuse and apparent dependence. The findings indicated that there is an evident relationship between higher use and tendencies for marijuana abuse and dependence on states that legalized marijuana for medicina purposes, as compared to the states that did not. An evaluation of the information, methods, analysis, and discussion of results in the article reveals that the authors used the appropriate structure, language, as well as presentation style to effectively validate their contentions. The use of major headings and sub-headings clearly delineated main topics of discussion. Moreover, the authors’ ability to select the most appropriate method perfectly match the conceptual framework which validated the results. In addition, the language used was straightforward and comprehensible which assisted readers from diverse educational backgrounds to grasp the intended messages. As noted, the sources of data were explicitly identified and effectively structured. It was commendable that the findings were presented in a clear and consistent format where the entire discussion of results were expounded according to justifications for relationships found. Four (4) mechanisms were noted to rationalize the relationships between legalization of m edical marijuana in identified states to the rate of use and potential abuse or dependency. As contended, these mechanisms could become frameworks for future research on the study. Concurrently, the authors observed the need to maintain objectivity through indicating as much as five (5) limitations of the research which were extensively explained. In addition, suggestions on areas of focus for future research were also indicated to provide interested researchers to pursue studies sharing

Ethic's - The concept of truth telling in cancer patients receiving Essay

Ethic's - The concept of truth telling in cancer patients receiving palliative chemotherapy and the impact on nurse-patient relationships - Essay Example ned by the performance of nursing functions with outmost care and diligence but that it moves toward the moral perception and awareness of nursing care. With this shift in the appreciation of nursing care – from performance of duties to moral perception of nursing care - the centrality of the nurse –patient relationship becomes more poignant and pivotal in the understanding of nursing (Gastmans et al, 1998; ; Covington 2005). In the context of nursing care perceived not just as a performance of duty but as a moral awareness, nurses rise up to the demands of care, respect and achieving the goal of holistic well-being for the patient. Thus, nurse-patient relationship opens a â€Å"comportment of the self towards others, which has the inherent goal of enhancing the existence of those others† (van Hooft 1999, p 190). However, the nurse-patient relationship is often plagued with quandaries that time and again challenges nursing care. One of these dilemmas that nurses have to contend with as they practise the profession day in and day out is truth telling in the context of patients undergoing palliative chemotherapy. Recognising the importance of truth telling in the nurse-patient relationship and the dilemma that nurses frequently encounter with it, this paper will look into the concept of truth telling in relation with patients undergoing palliative chemotherapy. In lieu of the significance of truth telling in nurse-patient relationship, this paper aims to understand the intricacies of truth telling vis-a- vis nurse-patient relationship. It intends to gain deeper comprehension of utilitarianism, deontology and the four basic ethical principles of justice, autonomy, non-malfeasance and beneficence. Finally, to attain a clearer comprehension of the impact of truth telling in the nurse-patient relationship in the cancer setting (palliative chemotherapy). As this paper will look into the concept of truth telling vis-a-vis nurse-patient relationship in the context

The Marxism of Valentin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Marxism of Valentin - Essay Example For as the play progresses, his inner struggles come to the fore as Molina's character gradually transforms him, influencing Valentin through his romanticism, to be honest with himself. And as he succumbs to Molina's romantic ideals, his typicality is defined as he confesses about Marta "She's upper-class. Pure bourgeoisie. She's got everything. Money, looks, education, freedom... I'm such a hypocrite. Just like all those class-conscious pigs. I must admit, it was convenient. A safe place to stay, when I was forced to hide... Until one day I had to tell her about my other life" (Puig, 63). Perhaps this particular side of Valentin can be regarded as his weakness as their movement demands absolute loyalty. On the contrary, it only proves Valentin's humanity and his capacity for reflection. In my opinion, Molina and Valentin personified Manuel Puig's strongest characters. In Molina, I saw Puig's homosexuality and escapism through films, whereas in Valentin, I saw his Marxist conviction. This is evident in the narration of the film by Molina: But did Puig, as a Marxist, want people to admire Valentin or condemn him Puig has made up Valentin as a fellow Marxist with a substantial amount of political ideals expected of the character, however, I got the impression that Puig wanted people to condemn Valentin. One reason One reason is due to Valentin's belated confession of a mindframe which can prove to be dangerous to the movement, a betrayal to their cause in favor of personal salvation, which was clear when he confided that " I don't deserve to die in this cell. I only confessed some code names they already knew. I can't stand being a martyr. It infuriates me. I don't want to be a martyr - my whole life a mistake" (Puig, 67). Another reason for the condemnation of Valentin is in empathy to the destruction he had wrought on Molina who, after his encounter with Valentin, had a change of ideals when it came to approach, from personal to revolutionary. Molina had sacrificed his finally attained freedom for his love of Valentin only to be mistakenly executed by the movement of his lover. MOLINA: I have a message from Valentin. Are you Lidia YOUNG WOMAN: Yes. Get in. Quick. As Molina reaches for the car door, AN AGENT DIVES AT HIM from behind. AGENT: Get him! As the taxi tears away, the young woman quickly draws a gun and FIRES TWO SHOTS at the agent, he crumples to the pavement. The sharp reports send the bystanders into hysteria. Molina runs off as the other two agents shoot down the street. Molina sprints erratically down a side street. Pedro and another agent are close behind. PEDRO: Stop! Molina -- stop! He fires a warning shot into the air. Pedestrians scatter. The taxi intercepts Molina's path at the end of the street. From inside the car, THE YOUNG WOMAN FIRES THREE SHOTS INTO MOLINA. The taxi speeds off. (Puig, 107-8) The argument present in this paper brought to light our perceptions on the meaning and values embedded in the terms of goodness and the typical. Kiss

If every physical event has a sufficient physical cause, how can a Essay

If every physical event has a sufficient physical cause, how can a functionalist account for mental causation - Essay Example The most important point to note about the functionalism is that it indicates that mental states which constitute beliefs, being in pain and desires are composed entirely by their functional roles. Being a theoretical; level existing between implementation and physical output, functionalism is different from Cartesian dualism which supports the physical substance and mental independency. The aim of this paper is to discuss how functionalist account for mental causation given that every physical event has a sufficient physical cause. One of the major worries that are experienced in functionalism is the problem of mental causation. This refers to facing a problem of accounting for the idea that intentional mental state and intentional thoughts are triggers of intentional actions1. Mental causation covers the mind’s interaction with the rest of the world and how it influences the behavior of individuals. One of the major sub-division of the problem of mental causation is problem of mental causal exclusion. Others are anomalism and externalism problems. A good example of the causal exclusion problem is indicated when pain is experienced and it is generally linked to a certain state, and the higher properties of that state occurs, then argument that it is pain can casually irrelevant. In dealing with the problem of mental causation, various responses have emerged. According to Antony and Levine 1997, the problem occurred due to highly restrictive causation whereby a cause has to produce its effect. Other phil osophers indicate that causation covers the relationships that exist between various events that must be invoked in order to produce a certain behavior. Recently, causal exclusion problem has been noted to relate with theories of mental states. Theorists such as Anthony and Levine indicated that even though mental states can be defined based on their

France In 1799 - 1815 And Napoleonic Wars Term Paper

France In 1799 - 1815 And Napoleonic Wars - Term Paper Example To many, the Napoleonic wars fought between 1799 and 1815 remained as an extension of the French Revolution.1 Napoleonic wars became fought for over 2 decades and entailed a number of certain distinct campaigns. First of all, the French revolution majorly entailed other dynastic rulers in Europe and the Habsburgs combined in an attempt to conquer the French that had attempted to conquer the world. The First Coalition wars occurred in 1792 to 1797 and entailed the French Revolution and some Italian campaign. Other campaigns included in the Napoleonic wars included Napoleonic war in Egypt, between 1798 to 1801, the second Coalition, between 1798 to 1801, the Third Coalition, in 1805, Fourth Coalition, between 1806 to 1807, Fifth Coalition, in 1809, the Peninsular war, between 1808 to 1814, invasion of Russia, in 1812, Germany invasion in 1813, France invasion in 1814, and finally the 100 days campaign carried out in 1815. 1. First Coalition of Napoleonic War This occurred in the year 1 793 to 1797. In the war, France fought to oppose certain things in the French rule and did it in association with countries like Prussia, Austria, Spain, Great Britain, Sardinia and the Netherlands. 2At that time, Bonaparte became assigned with the role of conducting armed forces operations towards Austrian forces in the given Northern Italy part after a directory from the French administration. a. French Revolution Napoleonic wars and the French revolution occupied 25 years of the late 18th and early 19th century. The wars represented the first European war that remained general since the given Seven Years’ war between 1756 and 1763. The wars also represented continuity among the European alliance systems plus ideologies with an exception of the noted first 2 years of the given French Republic between 1792 and 1794. During the wars, six European countries made a coalition challenging French expansion. Moreover, to counter the number of opposition the French got from the Euro pean nations, French also formed allies to help it in wars. It is via the wars that various radical changes became made in the international system. The war majorly brought radical changes in the French government as its policies regarding its enemies changed. As the war progressed, and policies changed regarding whom to trust and who to wage war against, at some point the French threatened the German princes existing on the western bank of the given Rhine and the Austrian Netherlands that had been in the given Habsburg possession since the year 1724. Acquisition of conquered regions led to French cultural domination over these regions. 3 Napoleon Reforms As a ruler, amidst the French revolution, Napoleon set forth to make major reforms in the legal system since the given old feudal plus royal laws proved inefficient and contradictory to the people. Before Napoleon came with changes in France law, France did not possess a given set of laws. France used to be governed by local laws t hat gave the nobles some privileges above the law. This made the citizens angry about the rules and hence revolted. It is during the French revolution that feudalism became abolished. Therefore, the laws that Napoleon introduced at that time became referred to as Napoleon code. The Napoleon code never biased people in relation to their birth, and allowed the concept of freedom of religion to become practiced in France. Furthermore, the codes specified that jobs in the government remained to be awarded to only the most

Individual project 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Individual project 5 - Essay Example ‘Women Matter’, a study by McKinsey & Company clearly points to the fact that an organization with 2 or more woman executives at the top level was ranked highest in operation excellence and financial performance. (Desvaux, Devillard-Hoellinger, & Baumgarten, 2007) The relevance of ethnic diversity at workplace is as important as the gender diversity. But it is still very less embraced by the corporates. Its relevance is always debated upon in the corporate world. Some of the benefits of ethnic diversity in workplace are innovation, better business expansion, productivity, motivation, profitability etc. (Bell, 2012) The diversity factor of sexual orientation is important too on a different perspective. There is no specific study that has proved that the presence of LGBT crowd in an organization will increase the organization’s productivity, nor is there a study that it will reduce the productivity. Therefore, based on moral grounds, LGBT community will be allowed t o be part of organization. Discrimination against LGBT group might result in a qualified or innovative individual from being hindered to progress. Moreover, a diversity based on sexual orientation will help an organization to develop better reputation. (Feigenbaum, 2012) A concluding statement will be drawn based on a comprehensive literature review on these three factors. Desvaux, G., Devillard-Hoellinger, S., & Baumgarten, P. (2007). Women Matter. Retrieved November 4, 2012. From: http://www.mckinsey.com/locations/paris/home/womenmatter/pdfs/Women_matter_oct2007_english.pdf Bell, M. (2012). Ethnic diversity in workplace: the business benefits. Retrieved November 4, 2012. From: http://www.hrmonline.co.nz/article/ethnic-diversity-in-the-workplace-the-business-benefits-141661.aspx Feigenbaum, E. (2012.) What Are Some Diversity Issues Found in the Workplace & in America. Retrieved November 4, 2012. From:

The Role of Parenting in Henry Roths Call it Sleep Essay Example for Free

The Role of Parenting in Henry Roths Call it Sleep Essay In the novel Call it Sleep, by Henry Roth, one of the hardest tasks is to truly understand the character of David Schearl. Written from the perspective of a young child, the reader has to wade through rambling streams of consciousness filled with significant meaning, as well as, well-developed mature thoughts. However, you cannot truly comprehend a character like David unless you fully understand his familial structure and the effects it has on him. Davids parents are important because they prove to be the source of his rejection and confusion with the world around him. By rejecting his parents and their culture David is only left with confusion, guilt, and loneliness. The Schearl household is filled with secrets, blame and denial that shake the basic foundations that a family depends on. Davids home is lacking openness and intimacy, and that forces David to look towards other places, such as religion, for such needs. Upon examining the effects the familys dysfunctions have on David; one can better understand the true nature of his character and his search for a personal identity independent of his parents. Davids relationship to his mother, Genya, is filled with love. However, as David gets older this love is sometimes replaced by shame. David, who formally took comfort in being near his mother, is trying to free himself from only feeling safe in her arms. At the beginning of the novel, David needed his mother to wait in the stairwell while he came up stairs because he was so terrified. While later in the novel, David is proud of himself for walking up the stairs and not being afraid of anything. However, there were times during this period when David wanted his mother waiting, and he felt shame in needing his mother to feel safe. Davids deep connection to his mother is the result of the father, Albert, rejecting both. Albert is not a good father figure, in the sense that, he doesnt fulfill any of Genya or Davids emotional needs. This absence of a strong husband/ father figure creates the tight and awkward bond between Genya and David. Alberts absence in Genyas life creates a huge emotional gap and for comfort she latches onto David. Another factor playing into the deep connection between David and Genya is the alienation both feel in America, a strange land, where neither feels as though they belong. Genyas inability to assimilate to the American immigrant lifestyle has left her sheltered and alone in an apartment all day. Having no peers or equals to spend here time with, Genya is constantly babying David to ensure that he will not turn elsewhere for his needs. As a child David thrives on this close relationship because he hates the ugly outside world. David seeks shelter in his mothers arms from people like Yussie and his sister, Annie, who wants to play bad. David, however, has more interaction with the outside world and finds his adventures there comforting as he grows older. Davids escape to the roof and the journey he took when he got lost replaced his need to find comfort in his mothers arms. The distance between David and his mother grew when she divulged her great secret to Aunt Bertha. The two women spoke half in Yiddish and half in Polish creating a huge gap not only in David s understanding but also in his connection with his mother. His mothers Polish and Davids increasing English vocabulary prevent them from sharing a common language in which they feel comfortable expressing themselves. David who used to feel at home in his mothers world inside the apartment finds himself growing up and rejecting Genyas inability to grow and change. Genyas world is becoming unfamiliar to David, whose experiences in the modern world are foreign to Genya. Davids rejection of his mothers world and her inability to understand his world force David to look for fulfillment and acceptance outside the home, in school, religion and with street kids like Leo.

Live Concert Essay Example for Free

Live Concert Essay Throughout the history of time, music has changed, grown, and developed into many unique and different genres and broken off into many interesting directions. Among one of these rather recent and distinct groups comes the genre of psychedelic rock portrayed by groups like Dr. Dog and Wilco. Psychedelic rock is considered controversial simply because of its origin and the habits it produces, encourages, and signifies in present day culture. The genre of psychedelic rock uses ragas, which literally means â€Å"color† or â€Å"hue†, and the drones of Indian music to create its individual and mood enhancing sound. This genre is a style of rock that comes from the cultures of the United States as well as the United Kingdom in 1960’s in which the use of psychedelic or hallucinogenic drugs were popular. This music is meant to reflect the feeling and effects of the common drugs and to replicate the experience of a trip from certain drugs such as cannabis, peyote, mescaline, and LSD. This trend began in America first in San Francisco, California and slowly spread through the country. This genre of music still exists today and one form of that music is from the band Dr. Dog which originates from West Grove, Pennsylvania and consists of five members, Tony Leaman who plays the bass, Scott McMicken who is the lead guitar player, Frank McElroy who also plays the rhythm guitar, Zach Miller on the keyboard, and Eric Slide on the drums. Much of this music is relaxed and tranquil, not as much hype and energy as typical rock. To create something as unique as that of Psychedelic rock, or acid rock, there are certain instruments that are used to execute the sound. Commonly used instruments in these kinds of bands include the electric guitar, percussion, keyboards, and exotic instruments such as the tabla and the sitar. These exotic instruments add a new element that was never found in western culture before. These new types of foreign instruments create a new sound and sensation for the listener. Since the whole point of psychedelic rock is to reproduce the awareness of a high from certain drugs, it has many social issues that come along with it. Many of the songs of this genre allude to the use or effects of drugs and the music resembles that emotion. The dissonance of the tones within each song creates the feeling of a drug effect and adds to the large subculture of the twentieth century. Although the music did not necessarily encourage the use of drugs to listen to the music, it had a profound effect on people of that generation. The hippie subculture of the sixties and the seventies were some of the people that surrounded this type of music. That doesn’t mean that they had to do drugs, but it means they most likely did. These were the people who went against the societal norms and expectations of the era and were engaged in music like psychedelic rock. The lyrics to most of Dr. Dog’s songs are quite ambiguous. Each song has a meaning that’s personal to the individual who is hearing it. What the listener takes away is something of their own perception and thought process. Through my own interpretation of the lyrics, this part of a song called â€Å"The Breeze† refers directly to why this type of music is controversial.

US Global Financial Crisis: Timeline of Causes and Effects

US Global Financial Crisis: Timeline of Causes and Effects Introduction: The global financial crisis of 2008-2009 began in July 2007 when a loss of confidence by investors in the value of securitized mortgages in the United States resulted in a liquidity crisis that prompted a substantial injection of capital into financial markets by the United States Federal Reserve, Bank of England and the European Central Bank. In September 2008, the crisis deepened, as stock markets worldwide crashed and entered a period of high volatility, and a considerable number of banks, mortgage lenders and insurance companies failed in the following weeks. Scope The crisis in real estate, banking and credit in the United States had a global reach, affecting a wide range of financial and economic activities and institutions, including the: Overall tightening of credit with financial institutions making both corporate and consumer credit harder to get; Financial markets (stock exchanges and derivative markets) that experienced steep declines; Liquidity problems in equity funds and hedge funds; Devaluation of the assets underpinning insurance contracts and pension funds leading to concerns about the ability of these instruments to meet future obligations: Increased public debt public finance due to the provision of public funds to the financial services industry and other affected industries, and the Devaluation of some currencies (Icelandic crown, some Eastern Europe and Latin America currencies) and increased currency volatility, Background In the years leading up to the crisis, high consumption and low savings rates in the U.S. contributed to significant amounts of foreign money flowing into the U.S. from fast-growing economies in Asia and oil-producing countries. This inflow of funds combined with low U.S. interest rates from 2002-2004 resulted in easy credit conditions, which fueled both housing and credit bubbles. Loans of various types (e.g., mortgage, credit card, and auto) were easy to obtain and consumers assumed an unprecedented debt load. As part of the housing and credit booms, the amount of financial agreements called mortgage-backed securities (MBS), which derive their value from mortgage payments and housing prices, greatly increased. Such financial innovation enabled institutions and investors around the world to invest in the U.S. housing market. As housing prices declined, major global financial institutions that had borrowed and invested heavily in subprime MBS reported significant losses. Defaults and losses on other loan types also increased significantly as the crisis expanded from the housing market to other parts of the economy. Total losses are estimated in the trillions of U.S. dollars globally. While the housing and credit bubbles built, a series of factors caused the financial system to become increasingly fragile. Policymakers did not recognize the increasingly important role played by financial institutions such as investment banks and hedge funds, also known as the shadow banking system. Some experts believe these institutions had become as important as commercial (depository) banks in providing credit to the U.S. economy, but they were not subject to the same regulations. These institutions as well as certain regulated banks had also assumed significant debt burdens while providing the loans described above and did not have a financial cushion sufficient to absorb large loan defaults or MBS losses. These losses impacted the ability of financial institutions to lend, slowing economic activity. Concerns regarding the stability of key financial institutions drove central banks to take action to provide funds to encourage lending and to restore faith in the commercial pape r markets, which are integral to funding business operations. Governments also bailed out key financial institutions, assuming significant additional financial commitments. Cause Of The Financial Crisis Various causes have been proposed for the crisis, with experts placing different weights upon particular issues. The proximate cause of the crisis was the turn of the housing cycle in the United States and the associated rise in delinquencies on subprime mortgages, which imposed substantial losses on many financial institutions and shook investor confidence in credit markets. However, although the subprime debacle triggered the crisis, the developments in the U.S. mortgage market were only one aspect of a much larger and more encompassing credit boom whose impact transcended the mortgage market to affect many other forms of credit. Aspects of this broader credit boom included widespread declines in underwriting standards, breakdowns in lending oversight by investors and rating agencies, increased reliance on complex and opaque credit instruments that proved fragile under stress, and unusually low compensation for risk-taking. The abrupt end of the credit boom has had widespread finan cial and economic ramifications. Financial institutions have seen their capital depleted by losses and write downs and their balance sheets clogged by complex credit products and other illiquid assets of uncertain value. Rising credit risks and intense risk aversion have pushed credit spreads to unprecedented levels, and markets for securitized assets, except for mortgage securities with government guarantees, have shut down. Heightened systemic risks, falling asset values, and tightening credit have in turn taken a heavy toll on business and consumer confidence and precipitated a sharp slowing in global economic activity. The damage, in terms of lost output, lost jobs, and lost wealth, is already substantial. Beginning with failures caused by misapplication of risk controls for bad debts, collateralization of debt insurance and fraud, large financial institutions in the United States and Europe faced a credit crisis and a slowdown in economic activity. The crisis rapidly developed and spread into a global economic shock, resulting in a number of European bank failures, declines in various stock indexes, and large reductions in the market value of equities and commodities. Moreover, the de-leveraging of financial institutions further accelerated the liquidity crisis and caused a decrease in international trade. World political leaders, national ministers of finance and central bank directors coordinated their efforts to reduce fears, but the crisis continued. At the end of October a currency crisis developed, with investors transferring vast capital resources into stronger currencies such as the yen, the dollar and the Swiss franc, leading many emergent economies to seek aid from the Inter national Monetary Fund. Ultimately, looking for a cause of the current financial crisis, it is critical to remember that organizations failed to do a number of things: Truly adopt an enterprise risk management culture. Embrace and demonstrate appropriate enterprise risk management behaviors, or attributes. Develop and reward internal risk management competencies, and Use enterprise risk management to inform management decision-making in both taking and avoiding risks. Enterprise risk management to be effective must fundamentally change the way organizations think about risk. When enterprise risk management becomes part of the DNA of a companys culture, the warning signs of a market gone astray cannot go unseen so easily. When every employee is part of a larger risk management process, companies can be much more resilient in the face of risks. It is an important lesson to learn now, before the cycle renews itself and businesses find themselves facing the next cycle of business failures, lapses in risk management and shortcomings in governance. The cycle does not have to repeat itself as it always has in the past. Enterprise risk management is an important key to preventing it. Enterprise risk management, when designed and implemented comprehensively and systemically, can change future outcomes. When it is practiced fully, enterprise risk management does not just help protect businesses from setbacks, it enables better overall business performance. Effects Of The Financial Crisis Economic Effects And Projections Global Aspects A number of commentators have suggested that if the liquidity crisis continues, there could be an extended recession or worse. The continuing development of the crisis prompted fears of a global economic collapse. The financial crisis is likely to yield the biggest banking shakeout since the savings-and-loan meltdown. The United Kingdom had started systemic injection, and the worlds central banks were now cutting interest rates. Regulatory Proposals And Long-Term Solutions A variety of regulatory changes have been proposed by economists, politicians, journalists, and business leaders to minimize the impact of the current crisis and prevent recurrence. However, as of April 2009, many of the proposed solutions have not yet been implemented. These include: Ben Bernanke: Establish resolution procedures for closing troubled financial institutions in the shadow banking system, such as investment banks and hedge funds. Joseph Stiglitz: Restrict the leverage that financial institutions can assume. Require executive compensation to be more related to long-term performance. Re-instate the separation of commercial (depository) and investment banking established by the Glass-Steagall Act in 1933 and repealed in 1999 by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act. Simon Johnson: Break-up institutions that are too big to fail to limit systemic risk. Paul Krugman: Regulate institutions that act like banks similarly to banks. Alan Greenspan: Banks should have a stronger capital cushion, with graduated regulatory capital requirements (i.e., capital ratios that increase with bank size), to discourage them from becoming too big and to offset their competitive advantage. Warren Buffett: Require minimum down payments for home mortgages of at least 10% and income verification. Eric Dinallo: Ensure any financial institution has the necessary capital to support its financial commitments. Regulate credit derivatives and ensure they are traded on well-capitalized exchanges to limit counterparty risk. Raghuram Rajan: Require financial institutions to maintain sufficient contingent capital (i.e., pay insurance premiums to the government during boom periods, in exchange for payments during a downturn.) A. Michael Spence and Gordon Brown: Establish an early-warning system to help detect systemic risk. Niall Ferguson and Jeffrey Sachs: Impose haircuts on bondholders and counterparties prior to using taxpayer money in bailouts. Nouriel Roubini: Nationalize insolvent banks. Reduce mortgage balances to assist homeowners, giving the lender a share in any future home appreciation. Timeline Of Events Predecessors Mar-2000 Dot-com bubble peak Jan-2001 First Cut in Fed Funds rate for this cycle (from 6.5% to 6.00%) Stock market downturn of 2002 Jun-2003 Lowest Fed Funds rate for this cycle (1%) Late 2003 Lowest 3mo T-bill rate for this cycle (0.88%) 2003-2004 Prolonged period of low Fed Funds and positively sloped yield curve Jun-2004 First increase in Fed Funds rate for this cycle (from 1% to 1.25%) 2003-2005 Period of maximum inflation of the United States housing bubble 2004-2006 Slow rise in Fed Funds rate with positively sloped but narrowing yield curve Feb-2005 Greenspan calls long-term interest rate behavior a â€Å"conundrum† Jun-2006 Fed Funds reach peak for this cycle of 5.25% Oct-2006 Yield curve is flat Events Of 2007 March, 2007 Yield curve maximum inversion for this cycle August, 2007: Liquidity crisis emerges September, 2007: Northern Rock seeks and receives a liquidity support facility from the Bank of England October, 2007: Record high U.S. stock market October 9, 2007 Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) 14,164 Events Of 2008 January, 2008: Stock Market Volatility February, 2008: Nationalisation of Northern Rock March, 2008: Collapse of Bear Stearns June 27, 2008: Bear Market of 2008 declared July 1, 2008: Bank of America buys Countrywide Financial July, 2008: Oil prices peak at $147 per barrel as money flees housing and stock assets toward commodities September, 2008: Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 September, 2008: Troubled Assets Relief Program September, 2008: Bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers September, 2008: Federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac September, 2008: American International Group#Federal Reserve bailout September, 2008: Merrill Lynch sold to Bank of America Corporation September, 2008: Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs confirmed that they would become traditional bank holding companies September, 2008: partial nationalization of Fortis holding October, 2008: Large losses in financial markets world wide throughout September and October October, 2008: Passage of EESA of 2008 October, 2008: Icelands major banks nationalized November, 2008: China creates a stimulus plan November, 2008: Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) touches recent low point of 7,507 points December, 2008: The Australian Government injects economic stimulus package to avoid the country going into recession, December, 2008 December, 2008: Madoff Ponzi scheme scandal erupts December, 2008: Belgium government resigns as a result of Fortis nationalization Events Of 2009 January 2009: Blue Monday Crash 2009 January 2009: U.S. President Barack Obama proposes federal spending bill approaching $1 trillion in value in an attempt to remedy financial crisis January 2009: Lawmakers propose massive bailout of failing U.S. banks January 2009: the U.S. House of Representatives passes the aforementioned spending bill. January 2009: Government of Iceland collapses. February 2009: Canadas Parliament passes an early budget with a $40 billion stimulus package. February 2009: JPMorgan Chase and Citigroup formally announce a temporary moratorium on residential foreclosures. The moratoriums will remain in effect until March 6 for JPMorgan and March 12 for Citigroup. February 2009: U.S. President Barack Obama signs the $787 billion American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 into law. February 2009: The Australian Government seeks to enact another economic stimulus package. February 2009: 2009 Eastern European financial crisis arises. February 2009: The Bank of Antigua is taken over by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank after Sir Allen Stanford is accused by U.S. financial authorities of involvement in an $8bn ( £5.6bn) investment fraud. Peru, Venezuela, and Ecuador, had earlier suspended operations at banks owned by the group. February 23, 2009: The Dow Jones Industrial Average and the SP 500 indexes stumbled to lows not seen since 1997. February 27, 2009: The SP index closes at a level not seen since December 1996, and also closes the two month period beginning January 1 with the worst two month opening to a year in its history with a loss in value of 18.62% March 2, 2009: The SP index finishes the first trading day of March with a drop of 4.7%, the worst opening to a March in NYSE history. March 6, 2009: The UK Government takes a controlling interest in Lloyds Banking Group by insuring their debt. March 8, 2009: United States bear market of 2007-2009 declared March 18, 2009: The Federal Reserve announced that it will purchase $1.15 trillion in U.S. assets ($750 billion in mortgage backed securities, $300 billion in Treasuries, $100 billion in Agencies) in a bid to prop up liquidity and lending to spur economic growth. The markets initially rallied on the news, however concerns began to grow regarding long term devaluation of the U.S. dollar and subsequent inflation. March 23, 2009: In the United States, the FDIC, the Federal Reserve, and the Treasury Department jointly announce the Public-Private Investment Program to leverage $75-$100 billion of TARP funds with private capital to purchase $500 billion of Legacy Assets (a.k.a. toxic assets). June 3, 2009: The Australian Government announces that the Australian economy did not show negative growth for two consecutive quarters, and thus has not officially entered recession. Literature Review The financial crisis motivates the below literatures to express their views from different angles, the below section highlights the main points for each: 1. Josà © De Gregorio: Inflation targeting and financial crises ; Governor of the Central Bank of Chile, Colombia, Bogota, 28 May 2009. Financial stability must be preserved with an adequate regulatory system. Agencies must analyze the strength of institutions, while central banks must evaluate the systems overall stability. Regulators and central banks must closely cooperate and work in the effort of maintaining the integrity of the financial system. Regulating specific institutions is not enough, because interconnections exist that could derive in a systemic crisis. The current crisis proves that the regulatory scope must encompass every agent with a systemic importance. So a proper macro-prudential regulatory system is needed. A first set of instruments has to do with capital adequacy. However, this is not enough, and it is no trivial to judge the soundness of the financial system by its capital and leverage levels. Higher levels of capital will certainly have to be required in the future, particularly as banks gradually assume higher levels of risk. Central banks must strengthen and perfect the models with which they carry out their stress tests. They should take into account the interconnections within the financial system and detect vulnerabilities opportunely. It is important to allow securitization, but establishing incentives for both credit screening and monitoring of payments to remain at the banks and that the process of transferring credit risk away from individual institutions balance sheets does not escape the authoritys eye. The current crisis should not become a hindrance to financial development, but a sign of alert in favor of prudence and rigor when assessing the innovations. 2. George Provopoulos: Reflections on the economic and financial crisis; Athens, 18 May 2009. The key priority among policy makers is to bring back economic growth and help bring about prosperity for everyone. The policy response should also be of a dual nature, one part of which involves a short-run response and the second part of which involves a medium-term response. In the short run, whatever is feasible should be done to support economic recovery. In the medium term, is the preparation to pursue a credible exit strategy from the extraordinary policy interventions while developing an effective framework for financial supervision. The short-term, response will help pave the way to recovery. The second, medium-term, response will help ensure that organizations do not experience a similar crisis in the future. 3. Rakesh Mohan: Global financial crisis causes, impact, policy responses and lessons , London, 23 April 2009. The ongoing global financial crisis can be largely attributed to extended periods of excessively loose monetary policy over the period 2002-04. Very low interest rates during this period encouraged an aggressive search for yield and a substantial compression of risk-premia globally. Abundant liquidity in the advanced economies generated by the loose monetary policy found its way in the form of large capital flows to the emerging market economies. All these factors boosted asset and commodity prices, including oil, across the spectrum providing a boost to consumption and investment. The ongoing deleveraging in the advanced economies and the plunging consumer and business confidence has led to recession in the major advanced economies. 4. Jean-Claude Trichet: The global dimension of the crisis: Japan, Tokyo, 18 April 2009. The current crisis has shown that there is a need for more rigorous regulation of the global financial system. Such regulation needs to meet two fundamental requirements. First, it needs to prevent the excessive risk taking that we have been observing in financial markets over the past years and that led to the creation of asset price bubbles and large imbalances in the global economy. At the same time, it needs to create an environment that is conducive to sustainable growth for economies in the long run. The international community has swiftly reacted to the need for greater coordination of policies and regulation of international financial markets National governments have in addition undertaken an unprecedented concerted fiscal expansion to stimulate demand and foster confidence in economies. Governments have also decided on a broad set of measures to support the banking sector and strengthen the stability of the international financial system. These measures include the injection of new capital, guarantees on bank debt and deposits, as well as large-scale schemes that aim at coping with the issue of impaired assets. 5. Ben S Bernanke: Four questions about the financial crisis Atlanta, Georgia, 14 April 2009. The current crisis has been one of the most difficult financial and economic episodes in modern history. There are tentative signs that the sharp decline in economic activity may be slowing. A leveling out of economic activity is the first step toward recovery. 6. Philipp Hildebrand: Developments in the current financial crisis, Berne, 2 April 2009. The financial market turbulence, which began some 20 months ago, has grown into the largest and most complex crisis since the 1930s. The real world economy is now feeling the full force of this financial crisis; its a very difficult period, although there are a few signs that the global economy could possibly be close to the cyclical trough. However, the route to recovery is unlikely to be straightforward, and the downside risks to growth remain considerable. Lucas Papademos: How to deal with the global financial crisis and promote the economys recovery and sustained growth, Brussels, 26 March 2009. The severity and duration of the current economic and financial crisis is partly a consequence of the reduced confidence in the prospects of the economy and the soundness of the financial system. The recovery of the economy also hinges on the restoration of consumer and business confidence that can contribute to the revival of spending and investment, and the return to normality in financial markets and the banking system. The rebuilding of trust will depend on ability to appropriately combine the policy actions needed to address the immediate challenges with the necessary reforms for establishing an economic, financial and institutional environment that is conducive to sustainable long-term growth. 8. Jean-Claude Trichet: What lessons can be learned from the economic and financial crisis?; Paris, 17 March 2009. The global economy was hit in mid-September 2008 by an unprecedented abrupt loss of confidence. It was perhaps the first time in economic history that a single negative event was able, within a few days, to have a simultaneous and negative effect on all private economic agents in every economy, industrialized and emerging. Public authorities, executive branches, and central banks must do all they can to regain, preserve and foster confidence among households and corporations to pave the way for sustainable prosperity. This calls for actions to be measured. Confidence of households and corporations today depends crucially on their trust in the capacity of authorities to preserve the soundness and sustainability of fiscal positions in the years to come. Confidence of economic agents today depends equally on their trust in the determination of central banks to preserve price stability. It is essential to achieve this balance between the measured audacity of todays non-conventional decisions and the credible determination to ensure a path that is sustainable in the medium and long term. Exaggerated swings without perspective would delay the return of sustainable prosperity, because they would undermine confidence, which is the most precious ingredient in the present circumstances. 9. Lucas Papademos: Tackling the financial crisis policies for stability and recovery ; London, 11 February 2009. To presume better regulation, more effective supervision and longer-term stability-oriented macroeconomic policy would suffice to eliminate the cyclical features of the financial system and the build-up of financial imbalances in the future. Market participants have an important role to play and self-interest in addressing some of the revealed weakness in the financial system, and in strengthening market discipline. What policy-makers can do, and should aim at, is to ensure that the macroeconomic policies and the regulatory framework designated do not exacerbate cyclical fluctuations, and that, when financial imbalances and market excesses emerge and are identified, the appropriate tools to address them in an effective manner should be used. 10. Hervà © Hannoun: Long-term sustainability versus short-term stimulus: is there a trade-off? , Kuala Lumpur, 7 February 2009. There are two stylised types of policy response to the global crisis: stabilization and stimulation. A measured stabilisation policy accepts the fact that the adjustment is inescapable while it endeavours to mitigate the pain and promote an orderly adjustment. In contrast, stimulation policies, pushed to the extreme, seek a stimulus that would be large enough to, so to speak, eliminate the adjustment period a goal that would obviously be illusory. It is a legitimate goal of policy to mitigate the macroeconomic recession and slow the spin of the negative feedback loop. However, expansionary policies that fail to take the crisis of confidence sufficiently into account run the risk of becoming ineffective beyond the very short term. To restore confidence in a sustainable way, policy actions should be embedded in a credible longer-term perspective and pay due attention to their effects on the expectations of economic agents. The crucial actions are to develop consistent medium-term policy frameworks, plan sufficiently in advance for how current policies will be unwound when normal conditions return, and develop a consistent approach to macro financial stability. Together, these measures would ensure that short-term policy actions do not sow the seeds of tomorrows boom and bust episodes. 11. Philipp Hildebrand: The global financial crisis analysis and outlook, Zurich, 5 February 2009. Only a careful investigation of the responsibilities is likely to point to ways in which financial system, and ultimately economy, can be made more resilient once this crisis has been overcome. Financial markets react to incentives, and these incentives were misplaced in the past. It is in power to start lobbying for clearly defined and risk-limiting conditions. 12. Jean-Claude Trichet: Remarks on the financial turmoil Brussels, 8 December 2008. Measures to address the challenges posed by the current conditions in the financial markets. In addition avoiding the reoccurrence of a similar crisis in the future. However, measures taken by public authorities can only go so far. The banking sector needs to also do its part by committing to reactivating the interbank market, resuming their intermediation role and implementing the necessary reforms aimed at strengthening the resilience of the financial system in the long term. 13. Jose Manuel Gonzalez-Paramo: The financial market crisis, uncertainty and policy responses , Madrid, 21 November 2008. Uncertainty translated into a severe under-appreciation of the risks associated with certain classes of financial instruments and institutions. More recently, with the intensification and broadening of the market turmoil, uncertainty has further increased and developed into a pervasive phenomenon affecting a wide range of markets, assets and financial sectors. Systemic uncertainty may potentially undermine the foundations of our financial systems, which are in turn essential for the orderly functioning of economies. 14. Christian Noyer: Some thoughts on the financial crisis Tokyo, 18 November 2008. Economic and financial forces are at play and recent events are the consequences of such forces. Policy makers, have a very critical role to play to try and ensure that such qualitative remain aligned with facts and reality. 15. Lars Nyberg: Challenges following the current crisis Santiago, 6 November 2008. The crisis will most likely redraw the global financial landscape in various ways. And even if the recent measures taken by governments and central banks have improved market conditions somewhat, it is far from certain that the crisis will be over any time soon. What will come out at the other end of the crisis is also still much too early to tell. The financial industry and the responsible authorities have to make certain that the costs of the prevailing financial turbulence are kept as low as possible. 16. Christian Noyer: A review of the financial crisis Paris, 7 October 2008 (updated 15 October 2008). To address all the questions and challenges that this crisis has raised: these include the role of credit ratings agencies, the management of risk, market infrastructures, the scope of financial regulation and the question of remuneration.. Pay structures should not encourage short-termism or, as was the case, excessive risk taking. 17. Lorenzo Bini Smaghi: Some thoughts on the international financial crisis , Milan, 20 October 2008. There are some time-honoured lines of action which relate to the prevention of crises, namely better regulation and supervision, in particular at the international level, and more effective crisis resolution mechanisms. One new point for consideration that has emerged from this crisis relates equally to ethical, social and political aspects. This should be solved both by governments, so that decision-making mechanisms can be adopted which allow the abovementioned problems to be overcome in a crisis, and also by the financial sector itself, which must clearly draw some lessons from recent events. In a market economy, maximizing profits and shareholders interests are a priority for management. They permit the efficient allocation of resources within the economy. However, when a sector such as the financial sector is of systemic importance to the functioning of the economy and is prone to instability, the objective function must be broader. It is a problem of rules, incentives and individual responsibility.

Adult Learning in Cohort Groups :: Adult Education Cohorts Essays

Adult Learning in Cohort Groups [According to a cohort participant,] cohorts are created not born. They are successful when everyone works collaboratively and collectively on improving their own and others' learning experiences. It takes self-responsibility, patience, courage, humor, commitment, sensitivity, and a lot of hard work to create such an enriching learning experience for everybody. (Nesbit 2001, p. 3) Learning in groups has historical roots in adult education and many adult educators use group learning as an element of their programs (ibid.). Recently, a form of group learning—cohorts—has emerged as an attractive option for administrators, instructors, and participants alike (Fahy 2002). Cohorts are usually defined as groups of students who enroll at the same time and go through a program by taking the same courses at the same time, a process that is sometimes referred to as lock step (e.g., Chairs et al. 2002; Reynolds and Hebert 1998). A cohort is much more than a structure, however (Norris and Barnett 1994). It is "a tight-knit, reliable, common-purpose group" (Drago-Severson et al. 2001, p. 15) that has foundations in group dynamics, adult development, and adult learning theory (ibid.; Nesbit 2001; Norris and Barnett 1994). This Brief highlights findings from research and theory on adult learning cohorts to examine how cohorts are structured or formed and the exp erience of the learning process within cohorts. Recommendations for practice are provided. Forming and Structuring Cohorts A cohort is more than an administrative arrangement. In fact, "to view the [cohort] structure merely as a method of course delivery, a vehicle for socialization, a convenient scheduling design, or as an upbeat, fashionable 'in' approach is to do cohort structure an injustice" (Norris and Barnett 1994, p. 34). Cohorts must be purposefully formed and structured if they are to succeed as environments that foster learning and development. Both individual and group development are important aspects of cohorts (Chairs et al. 2002; Lawrence 1997; Norris and Barnett 1994). Cohort structure should support the personal development of its members within a collaborative, cohesive group environment. Research on cohorts (e.g., Brooks 1998; Chairs et al. 2002; Lawrence 1997; Maher 2001; Norris and Barnett 1994) reveals that successful cohorts balance the needs of the group with those of the individual members by fostering a sense of belonging, creating an environment in which mutual respect flourishes, supporting risk taking, providing a place for critical reflection and the development of shared understanding, and encouraging and sustaining multiple perspectives. Adult Learning in Cohort Groups :: Adult Education Cohorts Essays Adult Learning in Cohort Groups [According to a cohort participant,] cohorts are created not born. They are successful when everyone works collaboratively and collectively on improving their own and others' learning experiences. It takes self-responsibility, patience, courage, humor, commitment, sensitivity, and a lot of hard work to create such an enriching learning experience for everybody. (Nesbit 2001, p. 3) Learning in groups has historical roots in adult education and many adult educators use group learning as an element of their programs (ibid.). Recently, a form of group learning—cohorts—has emerged as an attractive option for administrators, instructors, and participants alike (Fahy 2002). Cohorts are usually defined as groups of students who enroll at the same time and go through a program by taking the same courses at the same time, a process that is sometimes referred to as lock step (e.g., Chairs et al. 2002; Reynolds and Hebert 1998). A cohort is much more than a structure, however (Norris and Barnett 1994). It is "a tight-knit, reliable, common-purpose group" (Drago-Severson et al. 2001, p. 15) that has foundations in group dynamics, adult development, and adult learning theory (ibid.; Nesbit 2001; Norris and Barnett 1994). This Brief highlights findings from research and theory on adult learning cohorts to examine how cohorts are structured or formed and the exp erience of the learning process within cohorts. Recommendations for practice are provided. Forming and Structuring Cohorts A cohort is more than an administrative arrangement. In fact, "to view the [cohort] structure merely as a method of course delivery, a vehicle for socialization, a convenient scheduling design, or as an upbeat, fashionable 'in' approach is to do cohort structure an injustice" (Norris and Barnett 1994, p. 34). Cohorts must be purposefully formed and structured if they are to succeed as environments that foster learning and development. Both individual and group development are important aspects of cohorts (Chairs et al. 2002; Lawrence 1997; Norris and Barnett 1994). Cohort structure should support the personal development of its members within a collaborative, cohesive group environment. Research on cohorts (e.g., Brooks 1998; Chairs et al. 2002; Lawrence 1997; Maher 2001; Norris and Barnett 1994) reveals that successful cohorts balance the needs of the group with those of the individual members by fostering a sense of belonging, creating an environment in which mutual respect flourishes, supporting risk taking, providing a place for critical reflection and the development of shared understanding, and encouraging and sustaining multiple perspectives.

Feminism in Uncle Toms Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe Essay -- Femini

Feminism in Uncle Tom’s Cabin  Ã‚   While Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin overtly deals with the wrongs of slavery from a Christian standpoint, there is a subtle yet strong emphasis on the moral and physical strength of women. Eliza, Eva, Aunt Chloe, and Mrs. Shelby all exhibit remarkable power and understanding of good over evil in ways that most of the male characters in Stowe’s novel. Even Mrs. St. Claire, who is ill throughout most of the book, proves later that she was always physically in control of her actions, however immoral they were. This emotional strength, when compared with the strength of the male characters, shows a belief in women as equals to men (if not more so) uncommon to 19th century literature. In 1848, the first ever Women’s Rights convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Though Stowe did not attend, many of those who were strong in the abolitionist movement, such as Fredrick Douglas and Amy Post, did. Thus a correlation was drawn between the abolitionist movement and women’s rights. Both fights were about equality, so naturally those who were supportive of emancipation were supportive of gender equality as well. Uncle Tom’s Cabin not only follows the life of Uncle Tom, spanning from the time he is sold from his longtime master until Tom’s death, but also follows the life of Eliza, another slave who lives on the Shelby plantation with Tom as the novel begins. But unl... ...Topsy, but help her repent as well, for Topsy later says, "I will try, I will try; I never did care nothin' about it before" (94). Uncle Tom’s Cabin contains almost as basic of a moral as any story could; love has no physical barriers. The goal of Stowe’s novel is to show that in terms of race. But at the same time Stowe shows it in terms of gender as well. By making the female characters more morally righteous than the male characters and displaying the women’s physical feats more overtly than the men’s, Stowe enables the audience to see a side of women relatively unseen in 19th century American culture. Works Cited Stowe, Harriet Beecher. "Uncle Tom’s Cabin." New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1927    Feminism in Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe Essay -- Femini Feminism in Uncle Tom’s Cabin  Ã‚   While Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin overtly deals with the wrongs of slavery from a Christian standpoint, there is a subtle yet strong emphasis on the moral and physical strength of women. Eliza, Eva, Aunt Chloe, and Mrs. Shelby all exhibit remarkable power and understanding of good over evil in ways that most of the male characters in Stowe’s novel. Even Mrs. St. Claire, who is ill throughout most of the book, proves later that she was always physically in control of her actions, however immoral they were. This emotional strength, when compared with the strength of the male characters, shows a belief in women as equals to men (if not more so) uncommon to 19th century literature. In 1848, the first ever Women’s Rights convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Though Stowe did not attend, many of those who were strong in the abolitionist movement, such as Fredrick Douglas and Amy Post, did. Thus a correlation was drawn between the abolitionist movement and women’s rights. Both fights were about equality, so naturally those who were supportive of emancipation were supportive of gender equality as well. Uncle Tom’s Cabin not only follows the life of Uncle Tom, spanning from the time he is sold from his longtime master until Tom’s death, but also follows the life of Eliza, another slave who lives on the Shelby plantation with Tom as the novel begins. But unl... ...Topsy, but help her repent as well, for Topsy later says, "I will try, I will try; I never did care nothin' about it before" (94). Uncle Tom’s Cabin contains almost as basic of a moral as any story could; love has no physical barriers. The goal of Stowe’s novel is to show that in terms of race. But at the same time Stowe shows it in terms of gender as well. By making the female characters more morally righteous than the male characters and displaying the women’s physical feats more overtly than the men’s, Stowe enables the audience to see a side of women relatively unseen in 19th century American culture. Works Cited Stowe, Harriet Beecher. "Uncle Tom’s Cabin." New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1927   

Debating the Connection Between Birds and Dinosaurs :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Debating the Connection Between Birds and Dinosaurs We live in a world, where every question must have an answer. If that question doesn’t have an answer, somebody is determined to find out what the answer is. One of those very questions is simply, did birds evolve from dinosaurs? Many scientists have theories. There is no definite answer. I will, however, give you information on some theories scientists have, as well as information on a new discovery that may very well be indeed what scientists around the world have been looking for. I will leave it up to you, to decide who you think is right. The idea that birds and reptiles are closely related is not a new one. Since Darwin, similarities between modern birds and reptiles started speculation that these groups had something in common. Then, in 1861, the first specimen of the famous Archaeopteryx ("ancient wing") was found in Bavaria. It seemed to be a mixture of bird-like and reptile-like characteristics. â€Å"For many, this creature was - and is - a powerful confirmation of large-scale evolutionary change (â€Å"Are birds feathered dinosaurs?†).† Since then more and more new discoveries have been found influencing the dino-bird theory. The most recent discovery was in Northern China, of a feathered covered dinosaur that may very well be the answer to this very important question. This discovery not only presents questions about the origins of birds but also about the life of dinosaurs. It reinforces the case for the theory that birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs, while hinting that many other dinosaurs may have had feathers to keep them warm. The fossil skeleton is estimated to be somewhere between 126–147 million years old (Henahan 2001). However, according to the original scientific article the age is debatable. â€Å"Certain elements suggest a Late Jurassic age; radiometric work from several sites near Sihetun has suggested conflicting dates of 124.6 million years ago or 147 million years ago. The age of these beds is a complex problem and it is likely that several ages are represented at different quarry sites (Ji et al 2001).† According to the article the fossil was discovered by a team of American and Chinese scientists in the Yixian Formation in the Liaoning Province, China. This is the first dinosaur to be discovered with its body covering unbroken. The fossil has been identified as a type of dromaeosaur. The discovery may cause trouble in the paleontology community, where a debate continues on the link between dinosaurs and birds.

Conducting Personal Business on Company Time Essay

Because employees tend to spend so much of their weekday hours on the job, they often are tempted to conduct personal business on company time. This can include setting up doctor’s appointments on company phone lines, making vacation reservations using their employer’s computers and Internet connections or even making phone calls for a freelance side business while on company time. At first glance, this ethical dilemma is fairly clear: It is an abuse of your employer to conduct personal business on company time. But there are shades of gray here. What if your spouse calls to tell you that your children are ill? Is it OK for you to schedule a doctor’s appointment? A good rule of thumb is for an employee to check with his manager or human resources supervisors to clarify what counts as an actionable offense in the company. Taking Credit for Others’ Work Employees often work in teams to create marketing campaigns, develop new products or fine-tune services, yet rarely does everyone in a group contribute equally to the final product. If three members of a five-person team did all the work, do those three members demand to receive proper credit while pointing out that two members of the team did not pull their weight? This is a thorny question. If employees single out their co-workers in a negative light, it could foment resentment. The same thing could happen, however, if all employees accept equal praise even though only a select few did the real work. The best way to resolve this ethical dilemma is to not let it happen. Team members should insist that all employees perform specific tasks to help complete a project. Harassing Behavior Employees often don’t know what to do if they see one of their co-workers harassing another employee, either mentally, sexually or physically. Employees may worry for their jobs if they attempt to report a superior for harassment. They may fret that they’ll be labeled a troublemaker if they report co-workers who display inappropriate behavior toward other employees. The best way to resolve this ethical dilemma rests with the staff members who develop the company’s employee handbook. It is their job to include specific language that spells out that employees won’t be punished for reporting the harassing behavior or inappropriate actions of their co-workers.

Regulation of Political Speech

Can governments regulate political speech of corporations through restrictions on independent corporate expenditures? Over the course of the past twenty years, the U. S. Supreme Court constantly increased constitutional protection of corporate speech under the First Amendment and repeatedly struck down regulations on commercial speech as violating the First Amendment. Although the Supreme Court recently held statutory restrictions on corporate expenditures for electioneering communications to violate the right to free speech, it is still controversially discussed whether such restrictions can be upheld under the First Amendment. However, supporters of such restrictions ignore that the First Amendment is written in terms of speech and not of speakers and does not distinguish between different classes of speakers. Thus, restrictions on political speech cannot be justified solely based on the speaker’s corporate identity or its financial ability and inconsistent with the objective of preserving the integrity of the political process. Introduction TTThe freedom of speech is understood as an essential mechanism of democracy, for the free and public discussion of governmental affairs enables citizens to make informed choices among candidates for office. Owing to fundamental changes in society political views are increasingly expressed through organizations and corporations. In this respect, the protection of corporate speech under the First Amendment is widely recognized. Restrictions on corporate expenditures for political speech reduce the quantity of speech and thus restrict political speech itself. Along these lines, in Citizen United v. Federal Election Commission, the Supreme Court struck down statutory restrictions on corporate expenditures for electioneering communications as violating the First Amendment. However, this decision was widely criticized, in particular President Barak Obama blamed it as â€Å"open[ing of] the floodgates for special interests [†¦] to spend without limit in [United States] elections† and contended that American elections should not be â€Å"bankrolled by America's most powerful interests†. Notwithstanding the governmental interest in preventing corruption in the electoral process, the First Amendment does not distinguish between different classes of speakers and grants a corporation the same political speech rights as a natural person. To that effect, I intend to assess whether restrictions on corporate expenditures as imposed by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA) can be justified under the First Amendment. The paper has three main parts. To begin with, I quickly analyze in how far the provisions on corporate expenditures contained in the BCRA restrict the right of corporations to free speech under the first amendment. In part II, I examine the main arguments to justify such restrictions on corporate speech and raise some objections against them and finally, in the last part of the paper I examine to which extent the restrictions imposed by the BCRA are narrowly tailored to and consistent with the objectives they intend to achieve. I. Analysis of the Restraint The BCRA, prohibited the use of corporate general treasury funds for electioneering communications and only allows expenditures by segregated corporate funds through political action committees (PACs). As PACs are burdensome and expensive to administer they reduce the quantity of speech, for the quantity of speech is limited by financial resources available for the expression of political ideas. Consequently, expenditure restrictions function as a barrier to corporate speech and thereby prevent corporate voices from reaching the public and advising voters and deprive the public of its right to decide which speech and speakers are worthy of consideration. Therefore, restrictions on corporate expenditures also restrict political speech itself. Such restrictions can only be justified if they further a compelling interest and are narrowly tailored to achieve this interest. II. Compelling Governmental Interest In line with Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, it is argued that restrictions on corporate expenditures serve a compelling interest in preserving the integrity of the electoral process. As corporations, unlike individuals, possess more power and financial resources than most individuals they can exercise a greater influence on public political debates. To that effect, restrictions on corporate expenditures are claimed to be necessary to avoid quid pro quo corruption, namely to prevent corporations from exercising undue influence on officeholders inducing them to â€Å"act contrary to their obligations of office by the prospect of financial gain† – or in other words to prevent corporations from â€Å"buying† favors from a candidate. Opponents of expenditure restrictions contend that independent expenditures are not as dangerous as contributions, for they are not prearranged with candidate and might even turn out to be to the detriment of the candidate for such lack of prearrangement. However, I am not prepared to agree with this contemplation. As corporations usually inform candidates about their conduct, independent expenditures can have the same effect as direct contributions. On that note the court emphasizes in McConnell v. Federal Election Com’n that independent expenditures can be even more effective to induce then-elected officials to exercise their duties in favor of their corporate care-givers, because candidates know very well who their friends are. Notwithstanding the desirability to prevent corruption, the First Amendment does not distinguish between powerful and less powerful speakers, but stands against attempts to disfavor certain subjects or viewpoints and protects an open marketplace of ideas where speakers can engage in ‘vigorous’ advocacy. Therefore, it is inconsistent with attempts to restrict the speech of some to enhance the speech of others and the right to free speech cannot be made dependent on a person’s financial ability to engage in public discussion. In line with this, the Supreme Court held in Buckley v. Valeo that individuals and unincorporated groups are free to spend unlimited amounts to promote a candidate or his views. In this light, the potential for corruption cannot be said to be higher than in case of expenditures by individuals and there is no reason why corporate expenditures should be limited while a billionaire can lawfully spend millions to promote a candidate and exercise the same potential influence on the public debate. In addition, expenditure restrictions are claimed to be justified by a compelling interest to protect shareholders from being compelled to fund corporate speech, although their investments in the corporation only reflect economic choices, but not necessarily support for the corporation’s political ideas. Unlike individual speakers, corporations only operate to make profits and their participation in elections is transactional rather than ideological as they usually give money to candidates from both sides. At that, the special advantages of the corporate form – like limited liability and favorable treatment of the accumulation and distribution of assets – improve a corporation’s abilities to attract capital. Therefore, it is argued that resources a corporation acquired in the economic marketplace provide an unfair advantage on the political marketplace, because State law only allows corporations to be dominant in the economy, but not in politics. Although shareholders are free to sell their shares and cease the support of a corporation, they might be reluctant to withdraw their investment as this might force them to sacrifice profits from the corporation’s nonpolitical operations. However, this approach ignores that all speakers, even individuals, use money amassed on the economic marketplace to fund their speech. For instance, political speech might be funded through speakers’ salaries although their employer does not necessarily support their views or might be financed by loans from creditors who do not necessarily support the speakers’ views. III. Are Expenditure Restrictions Narrowly Tailored? Even assuming that the aforementioned interests could be considered compelling, the provisions of the BCRA are not narrowly tailored to achieve those interests. They are overinclusive because they include small corporations that do not possess the financial ability to exercise a dominant influence on the political debate and non-profit organizations. On the other hand, they are underinclusive for they exclude media corporations, although in particular modern media empires amass immense wealth and unreviewable power and are equally if not better equipped to influence the public political debate than other corporations. Many media corporations are owned or controlled by corporations that have diverse and substantial investments and participate in endeavors other than news. As a result, a corporation owning a media business and a non-media business could exercise its control over the media to advance its overall business interests whereas other corporations would be prohibited from promoting the same issue. Lastly, political speech is so integrated in this country’s culture that speakers will always find a way to circumvent campaign finance laws. Conclusion Restrictions on corporate expenditures for electioneering communications can no longer be upheld under the First Amendment. Likewise, no other restrictions on free speech can be imposed solely based on the corporate identity of the speaker. Nevertheless, I do not believe that the special interests of powerful corporations are likely to take over control of the electoral process, since disclaimer, disclosure and reporting standards ensure the integrity of the political process and allow voters to make a sophisticated choice. However, if Congress considers corporate expenditures to pose a threat to the integrity of the electoral process it is free to limit expenditures of all speakers, including individuals, or to impose heightened disclosure or reporting standards, provided they can identify a compelling interest for such restrictions. ——————————————- [ 1 ]. Darrell A. H. Miller, Guns, Inc. : Citizens United, Mcdonald, and the Future of Corporate Constitutional Rights, 86 NYUL. Rev. 887, 899 [2011]; First Nat. Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 US 765, 98 S Ct 1407, 55 L. Ed. 2d 707 [1978]; Citizens United v. Fed. Election Com' n, 130 S Ct 876, 900, 175 L Ed 2d 753 [2010]; Id. 130 S Ct at 925-926; United States v. Playboy 529 U. S. 803, 813, 120 S. Ct. 1978, 146 L. Ed. 2d 865 [2000]. [ 2 ]. Kusper v. Pontikes 414 US 51, 56, 57, 94 S Ct 303, 307, 38 L Ed 2d 260 [1973]; Citizens United 130 S Ct 876, 885; Id. t , 899, 905, 913; Bellotti, 435 U. S. , at 783-784; Alex Osterlind, Giving A Voice to the Inanimate, at 275; Breanne Gilpatrick, Removing Corporate Campaign Finance Restrictions in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 130 S. Ct. 876 (2010), 34 Harv. JL & Pub Pol'y 405, 416 [2011]. [ 3 ]. Mills v. Alabama 384 US 214, 218, 86 S Ct 1434, 1437, 16 L Ed 2d 484; Bellotti at 777; Citizens United at 898-899; Buckley v. Valeo, 424 US 1, 14-15, 96 S Ct 612, 46 L Ed 2d 659 [1976]. [ 4 ]. Bellotti, at 777-778; Time, Inc. v. Firestone, 424 U. S. 448, 96 S. Ct. 958, 47 L. Ed. 2d 154 [1976]; Doran v. Salem Inn, Inc. , 422 U. S. 922, 95 S. Ct. 2561, 45 L. Ed. 2d 648 [1975]; Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. v. Conrad, 420 U. S. 546, 95 S. Ct. 1239, 43 L. Ed. 2d 448 [1975]; Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn, 420 U. S. 469, 95 S. Ct. 1029, 43 L. Ed. 2d 328 [1975]; Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U. S. 241, 94 S. Ct. 2831, 41 L. Ed. 2d 730 [1974]; New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U. S. 713, 91 S. Ct. 2140, 29 L. Ed. 2d 822 [1971] (per curiam); Time, Inc. v. Hill, 385 U. S. 374, 87 S. Ct. 534, 17 L. Ed. 2d 456 [1967]; NAACP v. Button, 371 U. S. 415, 428-429, 83 S. Ct 328 9 L. Ed. 2d 405; Grosjean v. American Press Co. , 297 U. S. 233, 244, 56 S. Ct. 444, 80 L. Ed. 660 [1936] [ 5 ]. Buckley, 424 U. S. 1, 19; Citizens United at 898. [ 6 ]. Citizens United v Fed. Election Com'n, 130 S Ct 876, 175 L Ed 2d 753 [2010]. [ 7 ]. Alex Osterlind, Giving A Voice to the Inanimate, 76 Mo L Rev 259 [2011]; Bradley A. Smith, President Wrong on Citizens United Case, NAT'L REV. ONLINE, Jan. 27, 2010, http://corner. nationalreview. com/post/? q=ZTVkODZiM2M0ODEzOGQ3MTMwYzgzYjNmODBiMzQz=. [ 8 ]. Bellotti, 435 US 765; Citizens United at 900, 925-926; Playboy 529 U. S. 803, 813; Kusper v. Pontikes 414 US 51, 56, 57, 94 S Ct 303, 307, 38 L Ed 2d 260 [1973]; Citizens United 130 S Ct 876, 885; Id. at , 899, 905, 913; Bellotti, 435 U. S. , at 783-784; Alex Osterlind, Giving A Voice to the Inanimate, at 275; Breanne Gilpatrick, Removing Corporate Campaign Finance Restrictions, at 416. [ 9 ]. Pub. L. No. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81 (codified in scattered sections of 2, 8, 18, 28, 36, 47 U. S. C. ). [ 10 ]. Pub. L. No. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81; Citizens United, at 887 (citing 2 U. S. C.  § 441b(B)(2) (2006)). [ 11 ]. Citizens United at, 897; McConnell v Fed. Election Com'n, 540 US 93, 330-333, 124 S Ct 619, 630, 157 L Ed 2d 491 [2003] overruled by Citizens United; Fed. Election Com'n v Massachusetts Citizens for Life, Inc. , 479 US 238, 253-254, 107 S Ct 616, 619, 93 L Ed 2d 539 [1986]; Buckley, 424 U. S. 1, 19. [ 12 ]. Citizens United at 899; Bellotti, at 791-92; Kingsley Intern. Pictures Corp. v Regents of Univ. of State of N. Y. , 360 US 684, 689 [1959]. [ 13 ]. Citizens United, at 898; Fed. Election Com'n v Wisconsin Right To Life, Inc. 551 US 449, 464, 127 S Ct 2652, 2657, 168 L Ed 2d 329 [2007]. [ 14 ]. Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, 494 US 652,659- 660, 110 S Ct 1391, 1395, 108 L Ed 2d 652 [1990] overruled by Citizens United; Fed. Election Com'n v Natl. Conservative Political Action Comm. , 470 US 480, 500-501 105 S Ct 1459, 84 L Ed 2d 455 [1985]. [ 15 ]. NCPAC, 470 US 480, 496-497. [ 16 ]. McConnell, 540 US 93, at 143-144; Id. at 150, 152-15 4, 297; Fed. Election Com'n v Colorado Republican Fed. Campaign Comm. , 533 US 431, 441, 121 S Ct 2351, 150 L Ed 2d 461 [2001]; Nixon v Shrink Missouri Govt. PAC, 528 US 377, 389, 120 S Ct 897, 145 L Ed 2d 886 [2000]. [ 17 ]. Buckley, 424 US 1, 45-46. [ 18 ]. Citizens United at 926; McConnell, 251 F supp. 2d at 555-560, 622-625; Playboy at 804-805, 813; WRTL at 478; Buckley at 45. [ 19 ]. Mcconnell, 540 US at 129. [ 20 ]. United States v Intl. Union United Auto. , Aircraft and Agr. Implement Workers of Am. (UAW-CIO), 352 US 567, 597, 77 S Ct 529, 1 L Ed 2d 563 [1957]; Citizens United at 883; Playboy at 803, 813; Bellotti at 784. [ 21 ]. Citizens United at 907. [ 22 ]. Buckley at 47-48 CU; New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 US at 269, 84 S. Ct at 721 (quoting Bridges v. California 314 US 252, 270, 62 S. Ct. 190, 197, 86 L. Ed. 192 (1941); NACAP at 419. [ 23 ]. Kusper v. Pontikes 424 us at 48-49, Buckley, 96 S. Ct at 648-649. [ 24 ]. Buckley, 424 US 1, 48; New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 US at 269; NACAP, 371 us at 419. [ 25 ]. Buckley at 45. [ 26 ]. Austin at 497-498; 500-501; 105 S. Ct at 1468-1469; NCPAC, supra at 500-501. [ 27 ]. Austin, 494 US 652, 685. [ 28 ]. Id. at 659; MCFL 479 US at 257,258, 263; FEC v. National Right to Work Committee 459 US 197, 208, 103 S. Ct. 52, 559, 74 L. Ed. 2d 364 (1982); Pipefitter v. United States 407 US 385, 414-415, 92 S. Ct. 2247, 2264, 33 L. Ed. 2d 11 (1972); Bellotti 98 S Ct 1407, 1431 [ 29 ]. McConnell 540 US at 148. [ 30 ]. Austin 494 US at 658-659. [ 31 ]. Austin 494 US at 658-659. [ 32 ]. Id. at 710. [ 33 ]. MCFL, 479 US 238, 260, 264, 107 S Ct 616, 629, 631. [ 34 ]. Citizen United, at 904; Austin at 660. [ 35 ]. Citizens United, at 905. [ 3 6 ]. Citizens United, at 905. [ 37 ]. Citizens United at 906. [ 38 ]. Citizens United at 906. [ 39 ]. Citizen United at 911-13; McConnell 540 US at 176-177.